The Non-Cooperation Movement's launch was fueled by three key events
(i) The Rowlatt Act : This harsh law authorised the British to detain individuals without trial, sparking widespread outrage and igniting the flames of nationalism.
(ii) The Jallianwala Bagh Massacre : In April 1919, British troops opened fire on a peaceful gathering of unarmed civilians in Jallianwala Bagh, Amritsar, killing hundreds. This evil act became a symbol of British brutality and solidified the movement's resolve.
(iii) Gandhi's Leadership : Mahatma Gandhi, a staunch advocate for non-violent resistance, emerged as the movement's leader. His call for Satyagraha, a philosophy of non-violent protest, related with millions who were barred from freedom under British rule.

The tribal peasants interpreted the message of Mahatma Gandhi and the idea of Swaraj in different manner and participated in the Non-Cooperation Movement differently. For example, in the Gudem Hills of Andhra Pradesh, a militant guerrilla movement spread in the early 1920s. It is not a form of struggle that the Congress could approve. They were against the colonial rule and policies because it affected their livelihood as well as their traditional rights were also denied.
The leader of the guerilla movement, Alluri Sitaram Raju talked about the greatness of Mahatma Gandhi and said he was inspired by the Non-Cooperation Movement and Swaraj. He persuaded people to wear khadi and give up drinking. But at the same time he asserted that India could be liberated only by the use of force, not non-violence. The Gudem rebels attacked police stations, attempted to kill British officials and carried on guerrilla warfare for achieving Swaraj.

The First World War deeply affected India though it was under the British rule at that time.
The Following points state its impact
(i) The British Government raised taxes, custom duties, and income taxes in India to finance  the war expenditures.
(ii) Villagers and farmers were forcefully recruited III the British army.
(iii)There was a rise in prices of food and other essential things.

The four major proposals! features of the Vienna Congress were
(i) The Bourbon dynasty, which had been deposed during the French Revolution, was restored to power and France lost the territories it had annexed.
(ii) A series of states were set up on the boundaries. of France to prevent the French expansion in future. Thus, the kingdom of the Netherlands, which included Belgium, was set up in the North, and Genoa was added to Piedmont in the South.
(iii) Prussia was given important new territories on its Western frontiers, while Austria was given control of Northern Italy.
(iv) The German confederation of 39 states that had been set up by Napoleon was left untouched.

(i) The council elections were boycotted in most provinces but, it was not boycotted in Madras. In Madras, the 'Justice Party', the party of the non-Brahmins was powerful. They felt that entering the council was one way of gaining power which was enjoyed by the Brahmans only, so they did not oppose council election.
(ii) The effects of Non-cooperation Movement were dramatic on economic front as foreign goods were boycotted, foreign clothes were burnt and foreign trade and financing foreign trade was refused.
(iii) With the spread of Boycott movement, people began discarding foreign clothes and started wearing only Indian ones. As a result, production of Indian textile mills and handlooms went up.

(i) The European powers who had collectively defeated Napoleon met at Vienna to draw up a settlement for Europe.
(ii) Pets and artists Considered Greece as the cradle of European civilization and mobilised public opinion to support its struggle against a Muslim Empire.
(iii) Louis Philippe was forced to free because revolution started due to food shortage and wide spread unemployment.

A Statutory Commission under Sir John Simon was constituted by the Tory government in British to look into the functioning of the constitutional system in India and suggest changes. But it was opposed by the following lines.
(a) All the members of the commission were Englishmen.
(b) It did not provide any hope of Swaraj to Indians.

The following were the problems faced by the peasants of Awadh.
(a) The peasants were burdened with the high rents and a other cesses by the talukdars and landlords.
(b) They were even forced to do begar in the farms of talukdars and landlords.
(c) At the same time, tenants had no security of tenure and were regularly evicted in order to prevent them from acquiring any right over the leased land.

(i) The radius within the congress led by Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhash Chandra Bose became more assertive.
(ii) In December 1929, under the presidency of Jawaharlal Nehru the Lahore congress formalised the demand for 'Purna Swaraj' or full independence for India.
(iii) It was declared that 26^th January 1930, would be celebrated independence day. People were to take pledge to struggle for complete independence. But the celebrations attracted very little attention.

The First World War had ended with the defeat of Ottoman Turks and there were rumors that a harsh peace treaty was going to be imposed on the Ottoman emperor - the spiritual head of the Islamic world. A khilafat Committee was formed in Bombay in March 1919. The Ali brothers Muhammad Ali and Shaukat Ali had discussion with Mahatma Gandhi about the possibility of a united mass action on the issue. Gandhiji saw this as an opportunity to bring Muslims under the umbrella of a unified national movement.

(i) Gandhiji chose salt as the medium for protesting against the British rule.
(ii) 31^st January 1930, Gandhi sent a letter to Viceroy Irwin starting eleven demands ranging from industrialists to peasants.
(iii) The most important of the demands was the abolition of salt tax as salt was the most essential commodity for the common man.
(iv) The government was asked to accept the demand by 11^th march, failing which a civil disobedience movement would be started.
(v) On refusal of demands, salt march started from Gandhi's ashram in Sabarmati to the Gujarat coastal town of Dandi, spanning a distance of 240 miles.
(vi) On 6^th April 1930, Gandhi reached dandi with thousands of followers and ceremonially violated the law by manufacturing salt from sea water.
(vii) This marked the beginning of the Civil Disobedience Movement.

(i) Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, who organised the dalits into the Depressed Classes Association in 1930 demanded separate electorates for dalits in the Second Round Table Conference organised in London.
(ii) When British accepted this demand in the name of Communal Award, Gandhiji started s fast into death. He believed that separate electorates for dalits would slow down the process of their integration into the society.
(iii) Ambedkar and Gandhi came to an agreement with Ambedkar accepting Gandhi's position and the result was the Poona Pact of September, 1932.
(a) It gave the depressed classes reserved seats in provincial and central legislative councils.
(b) But, they were to be voted in by the general electorate.

(i) Khadi cloth was often more expensive than mass produced mill cloth and poor people could not afford to but it.
(ii) The boycott of British institutions posed s problem.
(iii) So, the students and teaches began trickling back to government schools and lawyers joined back work in government courts.

Some workers did participate in the civil disobedience movement, selectively adopting some of the ideas of the Gandhian programme, like boycott of foreign goods as a part of their own movement against low wages and poor working conditions.
There were strikes by railway workers in 1930 and dock workers in 1932. Thousands of workers in Chotangpur tin mines wore Gandhi caps and participated in protest rallies and boycott campaigns. The Congress was reluctant to include the demands of workers as part of it's programmed of struggle. It felt that this would alienate industries and divide the imperial forces.

The salt March was an effective symbol of resistance against colonialism because it was done in revolt against salt, used by the rich and the poor alike. The tax on salt, and the government monopoly over its production was a severely oppressive administrative move. The salt March was effective also because Gandhiji met a large number of commoners during the march and he taught them the true meaning of swaraj and non-violence. By peacefully defying a law and making salt against government orders, Gandhiji set forth an example to the whole nation of how the oppressor could be confronted in a non-violent manner. This also led to the Civil Disobedience Movement in 1930.

(i) They are the land owning class

(ii) They were small in numbers, but dominated Europe both socially and politically.

(iii) They spoke French which was considered the language of high society.

(iv) Their families were connected through marriage.

Due to the revolutionary movement, a large number of political associations were developed in Germany consisting of middle class professionals, businessmen and artisans.  On 18th May 1848, they assembled in the city of frankfurt to vote for an all-German National Assembly.  831 representative marched to take their place in the for unified Germany.  The Prussian king Friedrich William IV was appointed as its head. The parliaments was dominated by the middle classes who refused to accept the demands of workers and artisans.

The Civil Disobedience Movement was called off without the fulfilment of the demand of the rich peasant communities. Many rich peasant communities decided not to join the restarted Civil Disobedience Movement. The Congress was unwilling to support the "no rent" campaigns due to the fear of upsetting the rich peasants and landlords. The spread of militant activities, worries of prolonged business disruptions, growing influences of socialism amongst the young Congress members and the failure of the Round Table Conference led to the withdrawal of support to the movement by the business class. Industrial workers did not participate in the Civil Disobedience Movement except in Nagpur. The dalits (untouchables) did not participate as the Congress sided with the conservative high-caste Hindus. Muslim organizations and communities also sparsely participated in the movement. The Muslims alienated from the movement due to the fear of the dominance of the Hindu majority. During the course of the civil- disobedience movement, many dalit leaders separately demanded reservation of seats in the educational institutions and separate electorate for the legislative council elections. Dr B.R. Ambedkar organised the dalits into the Depressed Classes Association in 1930, clashed with Mahatma Gandhi at the second Round Table Conference by demanding separate electorates for dalits. Gandhiji began a fast unto death for opposing the. demand of separate electorates for dalits because he believed that this would disunite the Indian masses.

The Balkans was a region of geographical and ethnic variation.  It includes Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Bosnia, Croatia, Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia and Montenegro.  The people of this region were called Slavs.  A large part of the Balkans was under the control of Ottoman Empire.  In 19th century it was collapsed.  There were revolts by various nationalities for independence.  The imperial powers of Europe competed with one another to extend control over Balkan region because of its strategic position.  Due to this there arouse an intense rivalry among the powers.  The people of Balkan regions were separated from each other due to the domination of other powers.  The spread of nationalist ideas among Slavs, made this region very explosive.  Balkan area thus became an area of intense conflict leading to wars resulting to wars resulting in the First World War [1914].

The growth of nationalism did not come only through wars but also through the different forms of culture such as art, poetry, dance, music tic contributed to the growth of nationalism. The following three examples will show the contribution of culture to the growth of nationalism in Europe: -
Example 1 - Romanticism - It is a cultural movement which developed nationalist sentiment through creative works like painting, poetry, literature, folk songs, dances etc. It focused on emotions, intuition and mystical feelings. They aimed to create a sense of collective heritage as the basis of a nation.
Example 2 - Emphasis on Vernacular Language - It carried the modern nationalist message to people who were illiterate. Though Poland is no longer existed as an independent nation, national feelings were kept alive through music and language. Karol Kurpinski celebrated the national struggle through music, folk dances into nationalist symbols.
Example 3 - Johann Gottfried Herder - According to him, German culture was inculcated to the common people through folk songs, folk poetry and folk dances. So collecting and recording these forms of folk culture was essential to the nation - building.

(a) The idea of a fatherland among the citizens laid stress on the enjoying equal rights under a constitution.
(b) Choosing a new French flag, the tricolour replacing the former royal standard.
(c) The Estate General was elected by the active citizens.
(d) The Estate General was renamed as National Assembly.
(e) New hymns were composed, oaths takes in the name of the nation.
(f) A centralized administrative system was set up to produce uniform laws for all the citizens within its territory.
(g) Internal customs and duties were abolished.
(h) New system of weight and measures were adopted.
(i) Regional dialects were discouraged.
(j) French was spoken and written in Paris.
(k) French became the common language of the nation.

Napoleon introduced the following changes to make the administrative system more efficient in the territories ruled by him:-
(a) The Civil Code introduced by him in 1804 abolished all privileges based on birth, established equality before law and secured the right to property.
(b) He divided the administrative divisions.
(c) He abolished the feudal system and free peasants from serfdom and dues.
(d) He removed guild restrictions in the towns.
(e) He improved transport and communication systems.
(f) Peasants, artisans, workers and new businessmen were given freedom.
(g) he introduced uniform laws, standardised weight and measures.
(h) He introduced a common national currency.
(i) His code was applicable to regions under French control to create a feeling of oneness among all people of the French empire.

Napoleon introduced the following changes to make the administrative system more efficient in the territories ruled by him:-
(a) The Civil Code introduced by him in 1804 abolished all privileges based on birth, established equality before law and secured the right to property.
(b) He divided the administrative divisions.
(c) He abolished the feudal system and free peasants from serfdom and dues.
(d) He removed guild restrictions in the towns.
(e) He improved transport and communication systems.
(f) Peasants, artisans, workers and new businessmen were given freedom.
(g) he introduced uniform laws, standardised weight and measures.
(h) He introduced a common national currency.
(i) His code was applicable to regions under French control to create a feeling of oneness among all people of the French empire.

The Salt March took place on 12th March, 1930, in Sabarmati Ashram, Ahmedabad and culminated in Dandi, Gujarat, on 6th April, 1930.

(i) The Jallianwala Bagh massacre occured on 13th April, 1919, in Jallianwala Bagh, an enclosed public garden in Amritsar, Punjab, India.
(ii) British troops commander Brigadier General Dyer was responsible for the massacre.

(i) The primary objective of Dr BR Ambedkar in organising the Dalits into the Depressed Classes Association in 1930 was to mobilise the Dalits and fight for their rights. He aimed to uplift the Dalits, who were socially and economically marginalised, and ensure that they received equal treatment and opportunities.
(ii) Dr BR Ambedkar and Mahatma Gandhi clashed at the Second Round Table Conference over the issue of separate electorates for Dalits.

(i) The Chauri Chaura incident occurred on 4th February, 1922, in Chauri Chaura village, Gorakhpur district, United Provinces (present-day Uttar Pradesh) in India.
(ii) The main cause of the incident was a clash between a large group of protesters participating in the Non-Cooperation Movement and local police officials.