Marianne and Germania were the female allegories of France and German nations respectively.
Significance/importance of portraying Female Figures:
The female allegories stood as personifications of the 'Republic' and 'Liberty'. They were portrayed such that would instill a sense of nationality in the citizens of these countries. In France, Marianne's characteristics were drawn from those of Liberty and the Republic-the red cap, the tricolour, the cockade. Statues of Marianne were erected in public squares to remind the public of national symbol of unity. Germania wears a crown of oak leaves which stands for heroism.

(i) The first clear-cut expression of nationalism came with the French Revolution in 1789. In 1789, France was under the rule of an absolute monarch.
(ii) When the revolutionaries came to power in France, they were determined to create a new sense of unit and nationhood. For this, they emphasized the concept of France being the father land (La Patrie) for all French people, who were from now on addressed as citizens (citoyen). They were given the tri-colour flag, the three colours representing liberty, equality and fraternity.
French revolutionaries introduced various other measures such as:
(a) The Estate General was elected by the body of active citizens and renamed the National Assembly.
(b) New hymns were composed, oaths taken and martyrs commemorated all in the name of the nation.
(c) A centralised administrative system was put in place and it formulated uniform laws for all citizens within its territory.
(d) Internal customs, duties and dues were abolished and a uniform system of weights and measures was adopted. (e) Regional dialects were discouraged and French, as it was spoken and written in Paris, became the common language of the nation.
(f) They further declared that it was the mission and the destiny of the French nation to liberate the people of Europe from despotism and help them to become nations.

(a) Enormous increase in population leading to unemployment.

(b) Migration of people from rural areas to urban area for job.

(c) Products of small producers engaged in textile production from homes were displaced due to imports of cheap machine-made textile goods.

(d) Peasants struggled due to feudal dues and obligations.

(e) Bad harvests and rising of food prices added to poverty in towns.

He was an Italian revolutionary, born in Genoa in 1807.  He became the member of the secret society of the Carbonari. He was sent to exile for attempting a revolution in Liguria in 1831.  He founded two underground societies Young Italy in Marseilles and Young Europe in Berne.  The members of these societies were from Poland,  France, Italy and the German states.  He contributed to the unification of Italy.  He inspired the youth of Italy with national ideas.  Metternich described him as 'the most dangerous enemy of our social order'. His harsh opposition to kingdoms and his vision of democratic republic frightened the traditionalist.

Due to the revolutionary movement, a large number of political associations were developed in Germany consisting of middle class professionals, businessmen and artisans.  On 18th May 1848, they assembled in the city of frankfurt to vote for an all-German National Assembly.  831 representative marched to take their place in the for unified Germany.  The Prussian king Friedrich William IV was appointed as its head. The parliaments was dominated by the middle classes who refused to accept the demands of workers and artisans.

(a) They did not tolerate criticism and dissent.

(b) They were autocratic

(c) They sought to curb activities that questioned the legitimacy of autocratic governments.

Political leaders differed sharply over the question of Separate electorates because
(i) The Muslim leaders thought that their interest could only be protected in a Muslim state, and in a Hindu majority state they would be at the mercy of the Hindus. They wanted reserved seats in the Central Assembly and representation in proportion to population in the Muslim- dominated provinces, viz, Bengal and Punjab.
(ii) Dr BR Ambedkar, the leader of the depressed classes, was in favour of separate electorates for his community but Gandhiji believed that separate electorate for Dalits would slow down the process of their integration into society. Later Ambedkar accepted Gandhiji's position and signed 'Poona Pact'.

I was very happy to participate in Civil Disobedience Movement because I understood chat I had to serve the nation in whatever capacity I could. I had heard Gandhiji speaking and asking us to participate in this movement. Inspired by him, I also offered Satyagraha, picketed liquor shops and shops selling foreign cloth and also courted arrest. I felt empowered by these activities and felt that women also could help the men actively in the ultimate goal of achieving independence from the British. The experience has made me realise that women also have an important role to play in realising our freedom.

Salt March was an effective symbol or tool of resistance against colonialism because
(i) All classes could identify with salt as it was an essential food item.
(ii) Tax on salt and the monopoly over its manufacturing was a sign of the oppression of British rule.
Gandhiji reached Dandi on 6th April, 1930 and violated Salt law by manufacturing salt from sea water. Breaking the Salt law was an apparent defiance of British authority and was a direct challenge to British rule in India.
People were not only asked to refuse cooperation with the British, but to break the unjustified colonial laws.
Thousands of people from different parts of the country broke the Salt law, manufactured it and demonstrated in front of government salt factories.
With the spread of the movement, foreign cloth was boycotted, liquor shops were picketed, peasants refused to pay revenue, chaukidari taxes, village officials resigned, forest people violated forest laws by collecting wood and grazing their cattle in the forest. In this way, Salt March inspired people from different segments of our society and became our effective tool of resistance against the colonial power.

(a) Jallianwala Bagh is situated in Amritsar (Punjab). Here as a mark of protest against the Rowlatt Act, a peaceful assembly was going on. People from many surrounding villages were participating. Some came here to attend the annual Baisakhi fair.
This garden is enclosed on three sides and has only one entrance. In order to terrorise the people, General Dyer entered the park with troops.
Without giving any warning to the people, he ordered his sepoys to fire at them. In this firing, many people were killed and many wounded.
(b) Simon Commission arrived in India in 1928. It was greeted with black flags and slogans like 'Simon Go Back'. Both Congress and Muslim League unitedly protested against it.
This Commission was boycotted by the Indian people as it did not include any Indian member in it. Also the Commission did not give any hope of 'Swaraj for the Indians'.

During the middle of the nineteenth century, Italy was divided into seven states, of which only one, Sardinia-Piedmont, was ruled by an Italian princely house. The north was ruled by Austrian Habsburgs, the centre by the Pope and the southern regions by the Bourbon kings of Spain. Italian language had varieties of dialects; therefore, it was not stable in its form. During the 1830s, Giuseppe Mazzini had sought to put together a coherent programme for a unitary Italian Republic. He had also formed a secret society called 'Young Italy' for the dissemination of his goals. The failure of revolutionary uprisings both in 1831 and 1848 fell on Sardinia-Piedmont under its ruler King Victor Emmanuel II to unify the Italian states through war. A unified Italy offered them the possibility of economic development and political dominance. .Chief Minister Cavour who led the movement to unify the regions of Italy was neither a revolutionary nor a democrat. .With a tactful diplomatic alliance with France by Cavour, Sardinia- Piedmont succeeded in defeating the Austrian forces in 1859. In 1859, a large number of armed volunteers under the leadership of Giuseppe Garibaldi joined the fray. In 1860, Sardinia- Piedmont's forces marched into south Italy and the Kingdom of the Two Scillies and drove out the Spanish rulers. In 1861, Victor Emmanuel was declared as the king of united Italy and Rome was declared the capital of Italy.

(a) The Bourbon dynasty restored to power in France.

(b) France was disposed of its conquered territories.

(c) King down of Netherlands, which included Belgium, was sent up in the North and Genoa was set up in the South for Preventing French expansion in future.

(d) Prussia was given new territories, including a portion of Saxony.

(e) Austria got control over Northern Italy.

(f) Russia got Poland.

(g) Napoleon's confederation of 39 states was not changed.

After 1848, nationalism in Europe moved away from its association with democracy and revolution, Nationalist sentiments were often mobilised by conservatives for promoting state power and achieving political domination over Europe. Nationalist feelings were widespread among middle-class Germans. Middle class German tried to unite the different regions of the German confederation into a nation-state governed by an elected parliament. However, liberal initiative to nation-building was repressed by the combined forces of the monarchy and the military, supported by toe large landowners (called Junkers) of Prussia. Prussia with its chief minister, Otto von Bismarck took on the leadership of the movement for national unification with the help of the Prussian army and bureaucracy. Prussia emerged victorious after fighting three wars over seven years against the combined forces of Austria, Denmark and France and the process of unification of Germany was completed. In January 1871, the Prussian king, Kaiser William I, was proclaimed German Emperor in a ceremony held at Hall of Mirrors in the Palace of Versailles. The nation -building process in Germany had demonstrated the dominance of Prussian state power. The new state placed a strong emphasis on modernising the currency, banking, legal and judicial systems in Germany. Prussian measures and practices often became a model for the rest of Germany.

The Balkans was a region of geographical and ethnic variation.  It includes Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Bosnia, Croatia, Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia and Montenegro.  The people of this region were called Slavs.  A large part of the Balkans was under the control of Ottoman Empire.  In 19th century it was collapsed.  there were revolts by various nationalities for independence.  The imperial powers of Europe competed with one another to extend control over Balkan region because of its strategic position.  Due to this there arouse an intense rivalry among the powers.  the people of Balkan regions were separated from each other due to the domination of other powers.  The spread of nationalist ideas among Slavs, made this region very explosive.  Balkan area thus became an area of intense conflict leading to wars resulting to wars resulting in the First World War [1914].

The Balkans was a region of geographical and ethnic variation.  It includes Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Bosnia, Croatia, Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia and Montenegro.  The people of this region were called Slavs.  A large part of the Balkans was under the control of Ottoman Empire.  In 19th century it was collapsed.  There were revolts by various nationalities for independence.  The imperial powers of Europe competed with one another to extend control over Balkan region because of its strategic position.  Due to this there arouse an intense rivalry among the powers.  The people of Balkan regions were separated from each other due to the domination of other powers.  The spread of nationalist ideas among Slavs, made this region very explosive.  Balkan area thus became an area of intense conflict leading to wars resulting to wars resulting in the First World War [1914].

Nationalist tension emerged in the Balkans because the Balkan states were aspiring for nationalism. The Balkans was a region comprising modern day Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia and Montenegro and their inhabitants were called Slavs. In 19th century, the major portion of the Balkans was under the Ottoman Empire.
The ideas of romantic nationalism developed in the Balkans. The rebellions nationalities in the Balkans thought that their struggle was the attempt to win back their long-lost independence.

(a) The idea of a fatherland among the citizens laid stress on the enjoying equal rights under a constitution.
(b) Choosing a new French flag, the tricolour replacing the former royal standard.
(c) The Estate General was elected by the active citizens.
(d) The Estate General was renamed as National Assembly.
(e) New hymns were composed, oaths takes in the name of the nation.
(f) A centralized administrative system was set up to produce uniform laws for all the citizens within its territory.
(g) Internal customs and duties were abolished.
(h) New system of weight and measures were adopted.
(i) Regional dialects were discouraged.
(j) French was spoken and written in Paris.
(k) French became the common language of the nation.

(a) The idea of a fatherland among the citizens laid stress on the enjoying equal rights under a constitution.
(b) Choosing a new French flag, the tricolour replacing the former royal standard.
(c) The Estate General was elected by the active citizens.
(d) The Estate General was renamed as National Assembly.
(e) New hymns were composed, oaths takes in the name of the nation.
(f) A centralized administrative system was set up to produce uniform laws for all the citizens within its territory.
(g) Internal customs and duties were abolished.
(h) New system of weight and measures were adopted.
(i) Regional dialects were discouraged.
(j) French was spoken and written in Paris.
(k) French became the common language of the nation.

Napoleon introduced the following changes to make the administrative system more efficient in the territories ruled by him:-
(a) The Civil Code introduced by him in 1804 abolished all privileges based on birth, established equality before law and secured the right to property.
(b) He divided the administrative divisions.
(c) He abolished the feudal system and free peasants from serfdom and dues.
(d) He removed guild restrictions in the towns.
(e) He improved transport and communication systems.
(f) Peasants, artisans, workers and new businessmen were given freedom.
(g) he introduced uniform laws, standardised weight and measures.
(h) He introduced a common national currency.
(i) His code was applicable to regions under French control to create a feeling of oneness among all people of the French empire.

Napoleon introduced the following changes to make the administrative system more efficient in the territories ruled by him:-
(a) The Civil Code introduced by him in 1804 abolished all privileges based on birth, established equality before law and secured the right to property.
(b) He divided the administrative divisions.
(c) He abolished the feudal system and free peasants from serfdom and dues.
(d) He removed guild restrictions in the towns.
(e) He improved transport and communication systems.
(f) Peasants, artisans, workers and new businessmen were given freedom.
(g) he introduced uniform laws, standardised weight and measures.
(h) He introduced a common national currency.
(i) His code was applicable to regions under French control to create a feeling of oneness among all people of the French empire.

Napoleon introduced the following changes to make the administrative system more efficient in the territories ruled by him:-
(a) The Civil Code introduced by him in 1804 abolished all privileges based on birth, established equality before law and secured the right to property.
(b) He divided the administrative divisions.
(c) He abolished the feudal system and free peasants from serfdom and dues.
(d) He removed guild restrictions in the towns.
(e) He improved transport and communication systems.
(f) Peasants, artisans, workers and new businessmen were given freedom.
(g) he introduced uniform laws, standardised weight and measures.
(h) He introduced a common national currency.
(i) His code was applicable to regions under French control to create a feeling of oneness among all people of the French empire.

The German people did not exists as a united nation.  Men and women of middle classes combined their demands for constitution with national unification.  In 1848, the popular effort was failure to succeed in forming constitution (Frankfurt Parliament) in Germany due to the combined forces of the monarchy and the military, supported by the large landowners (Junkers) of Prussia.  Prussia took on the leadership of the movement for national unification with its chief minister as Otto Von Bismarck.  He reached his goal with the help of Prussian army and bureaucracy.
The process of unification was ended with three wars over 7 years with Austria Denmark and France.  In Jan 1871, an assembly consisting of the princes of German states, representatives of the army, important Prussian ministers including Otto von Bismarck gathered in the Hall of Mirrors in the Palace of Versailles to proclaim the new German head as Kaiser William I of Prussia.  The new state placed a strong prominence on modernizing the currency, banking, legal and judicial system in Germany.  Prussian measures and practices became a model for the rest of Germany.

The Frankfurt Parliament, which was convened in the church of St Paul on 18th May, 1848, was the first major step, towards the unification of german states. Otto von Bismarck, the Chief Minister of Prussia, carried out the process of unification with the help of the Prussian Army and bureaucracy. The building process of Germany after 1848
(i) The liberal initiatives of nation building were repressed by the monarchy and big landlords of Prussia. From then on, Prussia took the initiative to unify Germany.
(ii) There were widespread nationalist feelings among middle-class Germans, who in 1848, tried to unite the different regions of the German confederation into a Nation-state.
(iii) Bismarck was convinced that the unification of Germany could be only achieved by the princes, not by the common people. He wanted to achieve his aim by merging Prussia into Germany. In 1867, Bismarck became the Chancellor of the North Confederation.
(iv) Bismarck's main objective was to unify Germany and was accomplished by three wars with Austria, Denmark and France which were fought in a brief period of seven years. These wars were ended with the victory of Prussia which helped in completing the process of German unification.
(v) On 18th January, 1871, in the Royal Palace of Versailles, the king of Prussia, Kaiser William I was crowned as the German Emperor. It symbolised the birth of a United Germany.

The Salt March took place on 12th March, 1930, in Sabarmati Ashram, Ahmedabad and culminated in Dandi, Gujarat, on 6th April, 1930.

(i) The Jallianwala Bagh massacre occured on 13th April, 1919, in Jallianwala Bagh, an enclosed public garden in Amritsar, Punjab, India.
(ii) British troops commander Brigadier General Dyer was responsible for the massacre.

(i) The primary objective of Dr BR Ambedkar in organising the Dalits into the Depressed Classes Association in 1930 was to mobilise the Dalits and fight for their rights. He aimed to uplift the Dalits, who were socially and economically marginalised, and ensure that they received equal treatment and opportunities.
(ii) Dr BR Ambedkar and Mahatma Gandhi clashed at the Second Round Table Conference over the issue of separate electorates for Dalits.

(i) The Chauri Chaura incident occurred on 4th February, 1922, in Chauri Chaura village, Gorakhpur district, United Provinces (present-day Uttar Pradesh) in India.
(ii) The main cause of the incident was a clash between a large group of protesters participating in the Non-Cooperation Movement and local police officials.