Electronic Media:
(i) Mass Communication enables millions of people to get the information at the same time.
(ii) It is a great way to provide education as well as entertainment.
(iii) It helps in creating awareness among the people regarding various national policies and programmes.
(iv) The Mass Communication Systems can provide the information to people in two methods.
Electronic Media:
(i) Radio broadcasting in India was started in 1923 by the Radio club of Bombay.
(ii) It was named as All India Radio (AIR) in 1936 and again it was renamed as Akashwani in 1957.
(iii) It broadcasts a variety of programs related to information, education and entertainment.
Print Media:
(i) Newspapers are the most common but powerful means of communication come under print media.
(ii) India has many newspapers which carry information on local, national and international events to the people

Goals of WTO:
(i) Raising and stabilizing the incomes of small scale farmers, farm workers and artisans.
(ii) More equitably distributing the economic gains, opportunities and risks associated with the production and sale of these goods.
(iii) Increasing the organisational and commercial capacities of producer groups.
(iv) Promoting labour rights and the right workers to organize.
(v) Promoting safe and sustainable farming methods and working conditions

Categories of the Ministers The ministers are classified under three ranks 
(I) Cabinet Minister
(II) Ministers of State
(III) Deputy Ministers.
Cabinet Ministers
(i) The Cabinet is an informal body of senior ministers who form the nucleus of administration.
(ii) Important decisions of the government are taken by the Cabinet, such as defence, finance, external affairs and home.
(iii) The Cabinet recommends to the President to promulgate an ordinance.
(iv) It is instrumental in moving Amendments to the Constitution.
Ministers of State
(i) These ministers belong to the second category of ministers in the council.
(ii) They are also in charge of ministries or departments but they do not participate in the meetings of the cabinet unless invited to do so.
Deputy Ministers
They are the lowest ranked ministers in the cabinet. They assist either the Ministers of Cabinet or state in the performance of the duties entrusted to them

(i) By the end of Second World War Viet Minh controlled the northern half of Vietnam. Viet Minh formed a government led by Ho Chi Minh in Hanoi.
(ii) This Viet Minh government quickly occupied the southern half of Vietnam. However, the Allied Powers decided at Potsdam that the British in the south and the Chinese in the north should defend Indo-China from the Japanese.
(iii) In March the two governments (French and Viet Minh) reached an agreement by which North Vietnam was to be a free state, within an Indo-Chinese Federation. But the new French constitution included all overseas colonies in a French Union.
(iv) In 1949 the French attempted to secure the support of the population by declaring Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia independent within the French Union, retaining only foreign affairs and defense under French control. However, the problem of Indo- China soon became involved in the Cold War.
(v) While the French were receiving considerable financial aid from America, the Viet Minh were helped by the new Chinese communist government. The French troops were eventually defeated.
(vi) South Vietnam, approximately of the same size and population, was ruled by Ngo Dinh Diem.
(vii) Diem refused to hold the elections to decide on a united Vietnam.
(viii) However, by 1962, it was clear that Diem was incapable of controlling the situation. This led to the posting of more US armed forces in the area.
(ix) The US bombed both North and South in the hope that it could force the liberation forces to abandon the struggle.
(x) The fighters of North Vietnam, trained in guerilla warfare, had grown out of spontaneous struggles against a repressive regime.
(xi) The American troops also used bacteriological weapons.
(xii) Incendiary bombs such as napalm and Agent Orange (to defoliate the forest cover) were used.
(xiii) Escalation of the total military outlay caused the US big business to protest. The youths rebelled against the conscription and the horrors of war.
(xiv) Anti-Vietnam War protests rocked universities and colleges across the US and in Europe and became part of the 1960s counterculture.
(xv) No other single issue united millions of people all over the world as the war of Vietnam.

(i) Even on 23 February 1917, when the socialists celebrated International Working Women's Day on that day, the Tsar seemed unchallengeable. But he had to abdicate on the morning of 2 March.
(ii) Though none called for strikes fearing that the time was not ripe for militant action, the bread shortages among women textile workers, many with husbands in the army, forced them to go on strike anyway and march through the factory areas of Petrograd, the capital of the Russian Empire.
(iii) Masses of women workers in a militant frame of mind demanding "Bread for workers" waved their arms towards factory workers and shouted, "Come out!" "Stop work!"
(iv) The city's 400,000 workers joined the movement the next day (24 February).

Southern Indian trade guilds were formed by merchants in order to organize and expand their trading activities. Trade guilds become channels through which Indian culture was exported to other lands.
Early traders:
i) Kalinga traders traded with Southeast Asia at an early date.
ii) They traded in red coloured stones and cotton textiles.
European Traders in South India:
The trading activities of the various European companies which came to India during this period.
The Discovery of a new all-sea route from Europe to India Via cape of Good Hope by Vasco do Gama
had for reaching repercussions on the civilized world
The Portuguese:
i) Vasco da Gama landed at Calicut on the May 1498.
ii) The second visit of, Vasco da Gama led to the establishment of trading stations at Calicut, Cochin and Cannanore.
iii) Cochin was the early capital of the Portuguese in India.
The Dutch :
(i) The Dutch East India Company was formed in 1602.
ii) They established trading centres at Masulipatnam, Pettapoli, Devanampatinam and Pulicat.
iii) Pulicat was their headquarters.
The British :
(i) The English East India Company was established in 1600.
ii) They established trading centres at Masulipatnam and Pulicat.
iii) By the grant of "Golden Fireman" they were allowed to trade freely in their ports.
iv) In 1639 they built Fort St. George in Madras. It became their headquarters.
The Danes:
(i) The Danish East India Company arrived at India in 1616.
ii) Tranquebar was their headquarters.
iii) They failed to strengthen themselves and in 1845 they left India.
The French:
(i) The first French factory was established in 1668.
ii) The Dutch captured Pondicherry but was handed back to the French.
iii) In 1701, Pondicherry was the headquarters of the French

i) The Council of Ministers formulates and decides the polices of the State and implements them effectively.
ii) It decides the legislative programmes of the Legislative Assembly and sponsors all important Bills.
iii) It controls the financial policy and decides the tax structure for the public welfare of the State.
iv) It makes the important appointments of the Heads of Departments.
v) It discusses and takes efforts on the dispute with other States.
vi) It frames the proposal for incurring expenditure out of State reserves.
vii) It decides all the Bills whether ordinary Bills or Money Bills to be introduced in the Legislative Assembly
viii) Each Minister of the Council of Ministers supervises, controls and coordinates the department concerned.
xi) Annual Financial statement called as the Budget is finalised by the Council of Ministers.

Functions of the Lok Sabha
​​​​​​​(i) Any bill can be introduced and passed in the Lok Sabha (Including Money Bill).
(ii) It has the same power as Rajya Sabha to participate in case of impeachment of a president and the judges of Supreme Court.
(iii) It has equal power as Rajya Sabha in passing any bill for a constitutional amendment.
(iv) Lok Sabha members have the power to elect the president, vice president.
(v) The motion of no confidence can only be introduced in Lok Sabha. If it is passed then the prime minister and other councils of ministers need to resign from their post.
Functions of the Rajya Sabha
(i) Any bill (except the money bills) needs to be approved by Rajya Sabha to get passed. If the bill gets stuck for more than six months then President calls for a joint session of both the houses to resolve the deadlock.
(ii) It has the same power as Lok Sabha, for passing any bill for a constitutional amendment.
(iii) The members of Rajya Sabha have the electoral power for selection of President, Vice President.
(iv) It has power in the impeachment procedure of president and judges of the supreme court and high court.
(v) Rajya Sabha has the power to make a state list subject into National Importance. If two third majority of the members of Rajya Sabha passes a resolution to support it.

i) The Soviet was dominated by Mensheviks and the minority Bolsheviks was timid and undecided. The situation changed with the arrival of Lenin.
ii) When the revolution broke out Lenin was in Switzerland and he wanted continued revolution. His slogan of "All power to the Soviets" soon won over the workers leaders. The people were attracted by the slogan of "Bread, Peace and Land".
Failure of the Provisional Government:
a) The provisional government made two grave mistakes.
b) It postponed a decision on the demand for the redistribution of land.
c) Government decided to continue with the war.
d) Frustrated peasant soldiers deserted their posts and joined those who had restored to land grabbing. This intensified the rising in Petrograd led by Bolsheviks.
e) The government banned Pravda and arrested all Bolsheviks.
f) Trotsky was also arrested
Takeover by the Bolshevik party under Lenin's leadership
a) In October Lenin persuaded the Bolshevik Central Committee to decide on immediate revolution.
b) Trotsky prepared a detailed plan. On 7 November the key government buildings, including the Winter Palace, the Prime Minister's headquarters were seized by armed factory workers and revolutionary troops.
c) On 8 November 1917 a new communist government was in office in Russia. Its head this time was Lenin.
d) The Bolshevik party was renamed the Russian Communist party.
e) Lenin thought that the most important factor for the fall of provisional government was its failure to withdraw from world war.
f) So Lenin immediately withdrew from world war.
g) Lenin concentrated on the formation of new government.

(i) Human population dynamics is a field that tracks factors related to changes in the size of population and its characteristics
(ii) Predicting population changes is an important aspect of population studies
(iii) The demographic trend affects the economic, social, and environmental systems..
(iv) The size of Population and characteristics undergoes changes constantly

(i) European companies which came to trade with India.
(ii) The discovery of a new all-sea route from Europe to India via cape of Good Hope by Vasco da Gama.
(Iii) Vasco da Gama had far-reaching repercussions on the civilized world.

Sarkaria Commission on Centre, State relations suggested that the appointment of the Governor should be made
(i) From a panel to be prepared by the State Legislature or
(ii) From a panel to be prepared by the State Government (in effect the Chief Minister) or invariably with the concurrence of the State Chief Minister; or
(iii Invariably in consultation with the State Chief Minister.

The leader of the majority party in Lok Sabha is appointed by the President as the Prime Minister. The other ministers are appointed by the President on the advice of the Prime Minister.

1. Railways promotes national integration by bringing people together.
2. It also promotes trade, tourism, education, etc.
3. Railways help in the commercialization of the agriculture sector by facilitating the quick movement of perishable goods.
4. Its role in transporting raw materials to industries and finished goods to markets is invaluable

1. Alluvial soil.
2. Black soils.
3. Red soils.
4. Laterite soils.
5. Forest and mountain soil.
6. Arid and desert soils.
7. Saline and alkaline soils.
8. Peaty and marshy soils.

The sudden approach of monsoon wind over south India with lighting and thunder is termed as the 'break' or 'burst of monsoon'.

i) Brahmo Samaj eradicated sati, child marriage and polygamy.
ii) Samaj forbade idol worship and meaningless religious rites and ceremonies.

a) The 'Great Depression' dealt a death blow to Indian agriculture and the indigenous manufacturing sector.
b) The value of farm produce, declined by half. But the land rent to be paid by the peasant remained unchanged. In terms of prices of agricultural commodities, the obligation of the farmers to the state doubled.
c) The great fall in prices prompted Indian nationalists to demand protection for the internal economy.