Southern Indian trade guilds were formed by merchants in order to organize and expand their trading activities. Trade guilds become channels through which Indian culture was exported to other lands.
Early traders:
i) Kalinga traders traded with Southeast Asia at an early date.
ii) They traded in red coloured stones and cotton textiles.
European Traders in South India:
The trading activities of the various European companies which came to India during this period.
The Discovery of a new all-sea route from Europe to India Via cape of Good Hope by Vasco do Gama
had for reaching repercussions on the civilized world
The Portuguese:
i) Vasco da Gama landed at Calicut on the May 1498.
ii) The second visit of, Vasco da Gama led to the establishment of trading stations at Calicut, Cochin and Cannanore.
iii) Cochin was the early capital of the Portuguese in India.
The Dutch :
(i) The Dutch East India Company was formed in 1602.
ii) They established trading centres at Masulipatnam, Pettapoli, Devanampatinam and Pulicat.
iii) Pulicat was their headquarters.
The British :
(i) The English East India Company was established in 1600.
ii) They established trading centres at Masulipatnam and Pulicat.
iii) By the grant of "Golden Fireman" they were allowed to trade freely in their ports.
iv) In 1639 they built Fort St. George in Madras. It became their headquarters.
The Danes:
(i) The Danish East India Company arrived at India in 1616.
ii) Tranquebar was their headquarters.
iii) They failed to strengthen themselves and in 1845 they left India.
The French:
(i) The first French factory was established in 1668.
ii) The Dutch captured Pondicherry but was handed back to the French.
iii) In 1701, Pondicherry was the headquarters of the French

S. No	Comparison between Economic Growth and Economic Development	Economic Growth	Economic Development
i)	Definition / Meaning	It is the positive quantitative change in the output of an economy in a particular time period.	It considers the rise in the output in an economy along with the advancement of HDI index which considers a rise in living standards, advancement in technology and overall happiness index of a nation.
ii)	Concept	Economic growth is the 'Narrower' concept	Economic development is the 'Broader' concept
iii)	Nature of Approach	Quantitative in nature	Quantitative in nature
iv)	Scope	Rise in parameters like GDP, GNP, FDI, FII etc.	Rise in life expectancy rate, infant, improvement in literacy rate, infant mortality rate and poverty rate, etc.
v)	Term / Tenure	Short term in nature	Long term in nature
vi)	Applicability	Developed nation	Developing economics
vii)	Measurement Techniques	Increase in National Income	Increase in real National Income(i.e.) Per capita Income
viii)	Frequency of occurrence	In a certain period of time	Continuous process.
ix)	Government Aid	It is an automatic process so may not require government support /aid or intervention	Highly dependent on government intervention as it includes widespread policies changes so without government intervention it is not possible

Functions of the Lok Sabha
​​​​​​​(i) Any bill can be introduced and passed in the Lok Sabha (Including Money Bill).
(ii) It has the same power as Rajya Sabha to participate in case of impeachment of a president and the judges of Supreme Court.
(iii) It has equal power as Rajya Sabha in passing any bill for a constitutional amendment.
(iv) Lok Sabha members have the power to elect the president, vice president.
(v) The motion of no confidence can only be introduced in Lok Sabha. If it is passed then the prime minister and other councils of ministers need to resign from their post.
Functions of the Rajya Sabha
(i) Any bill (except the money bills) needs to be approved by Rajya Sabha to get passed. If the bill gets stuck for more than six months then President calls for a joint session of both the houses to resolve the deadlock.
(ii) It has the same power as Lok Sabha, for passing any bill for a constitutional amendment.
(iii) The members of Rajya Sabha have the electoral power for selection of President, Vice President.
(iv) It has power in the impeachment procedure of president and judges of the supreme court and high court.
(v) Rajya Sabha has the power to make a state list subject into National Importance. If two third majority of the members of Rajya Sabha passes a resolution to support it.

There are six Fundamental Rights. They are
i) Right to Equality
ii) Right to Freedom
iii) Right against Exploitation
iv) Right to Religion
v) Cultural & Educational Rights
vi) Right to Constitutional Remedies
Right to Equality
i) Article 14 : Equality before law
ii) Article 15 : Prohibition of discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth
iii) Article 16 : Equality of opportunity in matters of public employment.
iv) Article 17 : Abolition of untouchability.
v) Article 18 : Abolition of titles except military and academic.
Right to freedom
i) Article 19 : Freedom of speech and expression assembly association, movement, residence and profession.
ii) Article 20 : Protection in respect of conviction for offences.
iii) Article 21 : Protection of life and personal liberty.
iv) Article 21A : Right to elementary education.
v) Article 22 : Protection against arrest and detention in certain cases.
Right against exploitation
i) Article 23 : Prohibition of traffic in human beings and forced labour
ii) Article 24 : Prohibition of employment of children in factories, etc.
Rights to Religion
i) Aticle 25 : Freedom of conscience and free profession, practice and propagation of religion.
ii) Article 26 : Freedom to manage religious affairs.
iii) Article 27: Freedom from payment of taxes for promotion of any religion.
iv) Aricle 28 : Freedom from attending religious instruction or worship in certain educational insitutions.
cultural & Educational Rights
i) Article 29 : Protection of language, script and culture of minorities.
ii) Article 30 : Right of minorities to establish and administer educational institutions.
Right to Constitutional remedies
iii) Article 32: It allows individuals to seek redressal for the violation of their fundamental rights.

Classification of Roads:
i) National Highways (NH): National Highways form the most important system of road transportation in India.
ii) These highways are connect capitals of states, major Ports, rail junctions, industrial and tourist centres.
iii) The longest National highway is NH - 44, which runs from Srinagar in Jammu Kashmir to Kanniyakumari in Tamil Nadu.
iv)The shortest national highway is NH-47A, which runs, from Ernakulum to Kochi port (Willington Island) covering a distance of 6 km.
State Highways:
The state highways are usually roads that link important cities, towns and district headquarters within the state and connect them with national highways or highways of neighboring states. These roads are administered and financed by state governments.
District Roads:
i) District Roads provide connectivity between the district and taluk headquarters with the state highways and national highways.
ii) District Roads are constructed and maintained by the Public Works Department of the states.
Rural Roads:
i) Rural roads connectivity is a key component of rural development. These roads are vital for providing links in the rural areas. It links the different villages with their neighboring towns.
ii) They are maintained by Village Panchayats.
Border Roads:
i) These are the roads of strategic importance in border areas.
ii) They are constructed and maintained by Border Roads Organization. It was established in 1960 for the development of the roads in the northern and northeastern border areas.
iii) Border Roads Organization has constructed world's highest road joining Chandigarh and Leh in Ladakh.
Golden Quadrilateral Roads:
Golden Quadrilateral 5,846 km long road of 4/6. lanes connects, India's the four metropolitan
cities Delhi, Kolkata, Chennai and Mumbai.
Expressways:
i) These roads are multilane good quality road for high speed traffic.
Eg: Mumbai - Pune road.
International Highways:
These roads link India with neighboring countries for promoting harmonious relationship with them.

Intensive farming:
i) Intensive farming is an agricultural intensification and mechanization system. It aims to maximise yields from available land through various means, such as heavy use of pesticides and chemical fertilizers.
ii) Plantation forming is practices in West Bengal, Kerala, Tamilnadu and Karnataka.
Plantation farming:
i) Plantation crops are cultivated for the purpose of exports. These are cultivated in large estates on hilly slopes. Tea, coffee, rubber and spices are the major plantation crops of India.

On the basis of climate, soil and land form characteristics the natural vegetation of India can be divided into the following types.
Tropical Evergreen Forest:
i) These forest are found in areas with 200 cm or more annual rainfall.
ii) Western Ghats in Maharashtra, Karnataka, Kerala, Andaman Nicobar Islands, Assam, West Bengal, Nagaland, Tripura, Mizoram, Manipur and Meghalaya states have this type of forests.
iii) The most important trees are rubber, mahogany, ebony, rosewood, coconut, bamboo, cinchona, candes, palm, iron wood and cedar.
Tropical Deciduous Forest:
i) These forests are found in the areas with 100 to 200 cm annual rainfall.
ii) These are called 'Monsoon Forests'.
iii) The trees of these forests drop their leaves during the spring and early summer.
iv) These forests are found in Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.
v) Teak and Sal are the most important trees. Sandal wood, rose wood, Kusum, Mahua, Palas haldu, amla, padank, bamboo and tendu are the other trees of economic importance.
vi) These forests also provide fragrant oil, varnish, sandal oil and perfumes.
Tropical Dry Forest:
i) These forests are found in the areas with 50 to 100 cm annual rainfall.
ii) They represent a transitional type of forests.
iii) These are found in east Rajasthan, Haryana, Punjab, Western Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Eastern Maharashtra, Telangana, West Karnataka and East Tamil Nadu.
iv) The important species are mahua, banyan, amaltas, palas, haldu, kikar, bamboo, babool, khair, etc.
Tropical Thorn Forest:
i) These are found in the areas having annual rainfall of less than 50 cm.
ii) They have low humidity and high temperature.
iii) These forests are found in north - west India, which includes west Rajasthan, South west
iv) Haryana, North Gujarat, South  - west Punjab, parts of the Deccan plateau in Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra.
v) Babul, Kikar and Wild palms are common trees found here.
Mountain or Montane Forest:
On the basis of altitude and amount of rainfall, these forests are classified into two.
i) Eastern Himalayan Forest,
ii) Western Himalayan Forest.
Alpine Forest:
i) It occurs all along the Himalayas with above 2400 m altitude.
ii) These are purely having coniferous trees.
iii) Oak, silver fir, pine and juniper are the main trees of these forests.
iv) The eastern parts of Himalayas have large extent of these forests.
Mangrove Forest:
i) These forests occur in and around the deltas, estuaries, creeks, prone to tidal influences and as such are also known as delta or swamp forests.
ii) The delta of the Ganga, Brahmaputra has the largest tidal forest.
iii) These are also known as Sundarbans forest.
iv) The deltas of Mahanadi, Godavari and Krishna rivers are also known for tidal forests.
v) These are also known as tidal forests.

i) The rivers in south India are called the Peninsular rivers.
ii) Most of these rivers originate from the Western Ghats.
iii) These are seasonal rivers (non-perennial).
iv) They have a large seasonal fluctuation in volume of water as they are solely fed by rain.
v) These rivers flow in valleys with steep gradients.
vi) Based on the direction of flow, the peninsular rivers are divided into the West flowing and East flowing rivers.
East flowing rivers
a) Mahanadi:
i) The river Mahanadi (851 km) originates near Sihawa in Raipur district of Chattisgarh and flows through Odisha. Seonath, Telen, Sandur, Ib are its major tributaries.
ii) Delta of Mahanadi is one of the largest deltas in India.
b) Godavari
i) Godavari(1,465 km) is the longest of the Peninsular rivers. It is also called Vridha Ganga.
ii) It flows through the states of Telangana and Andhra Pradesh and joins the Bay of Bengal.
iii) Purna, Penganga, Pranitha, Indravathi, Tal & Salami are its major tributaries.
c) Krishna
i) The river Krishna (1,400 km) originates from a spring at a place called Mahabaleshwar in the Western Ghats of Maharashtra. Peddavagu, Musi, Koyna & Tungabhadra are its major tributaries.
ii) It is the second longest Peninsular river.
iii) It flows through Andhra Pradesh and joins the Bay of Bengal, at Hamsaladeevi.
d) Kaveri
i) The river Kaveri (800 km) originates at Tala kaveri, Kodagu hills of Karnataka.
ii) The river Kaveri is called Dhakshin Ganga or Ganga of south.
iii) The Kaveri breaks at Srirangam island with two channels, river Coleroon (Kollidam) and Kaveri.
iv)  At last, it empties in to the Bay of Bengal at Poompuhar.
West flowing rivers
a) Narmada
i) "The river Narmada (1,312 km) rises in Amarkantak Plateau in Madhya Pradesh. Burhner,Halon, Heran, Banjar, Dudhi, Shakkar, Tawa, Barna, Kolar are its tributaries.
ii) It is the largest among the west flowing rivers of Peninsular India.
iii) It forms 27 km long estuary before out falling into the Arabian sea through the Gulf of Cambay.
b) Tapti
 i) It is one of only the three rivers in Peninsular India that run from east to west- the others being the Narmada and the Mahi.
 ii) It outfalls into the Arabian Sea through the Gulf of Cambay.
 iii) Vaki, Gomai, Arunavati, Aner, Nesu, Buray, Panjhra, Bori are its tributariesaki.

The influence of Western ideas and Christianity created a new awakening in 19th century British India.
Raja Rammohan Roy:
i) Raja Rammohan Roy was deeply concerned with the prevailing customs of Sati, Child Marriage and Polygamy.
ii) He published tracts against them and petitioned the government to legislate against them.
iii) He advocated the rights of widows to remarry.
iv) He wanted polygamy to end. Rammohan Roy condemned the subjugation of women and opposed the prevailing ideas 'women were inferior to men'. He strongly advocated education for women.
Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar:
i) Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar provided evidence from scriptures that there was no sanction for burning of widows or for the prohibition on the remarriage of widows.
ii) He played a leading role in promoting education of girls.
iii) He dedicated his whole life for the betterment of the child widows of the Hindu society.
iv) It resulted in the Widows' Remarriage Reform act of 1856. This act was intended to improve the lot of child widows and save them from perpetual widowhood.
M.G Ranade:
i) M.G Ranade was the founder of the Widow Marriage Association.
ii) He advocated inter-caste marriage, widow remarriage, improvement of woman and depressed classes.
Jyotiba Phule:
i) Jyotiba Phule worked for the cause of women.
ii) He opposed child marriage and supported widow remarriage.
iii) He opened orphanages and homes for widows.
Other Reformers:
i) The leader of the sabha opposed both infant marriage and use of astrology.
ii) Baba Ram Singh considered both men and women equal and accepted widow remarriage. It prohibited the dowry system and child marriage.
iii) Ramalinga established a free feeding house for everyone irrespective of caste at Vadalur (1867), in the wake of a terrible famine in South India in 1866.

i) World War II began in 1939 and ended in 1945.
ii) In World War II, had an extensive area of conflict and very high death toll of civilians as well as armed combatants.
New geo-political power Alignment:
i) The world was polarized into two main blocs led by superpowers:
a) United States (Anti communist ideology)
b) Soviet Russia (Communist ideology)
ii) Europe was divided into,
a) Communist
b) Non-Communist
Nuclear Proliferation:
i) The United States and the Soviet Union entered into a race to have more nuclear powered weapons. They built a large stockpile of such weapons.
ii) Defence spending sky-rocketed in many countries.
International Agencies:
i) Many international agencies, in particular the United Nations, the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund came into existence providing a forum for countries large and small.
Social and Economic changes:
i) Social and Economic changes took place in the post-war world.
ii) Colonial powers were forced to give independence to former colonies in a process of decolonization. India was the first to achieve Independence.

a) There were two main political parties: The Unionist Party which was mainly British and the South Africa Party which had largely Afrikaners (Boers).
b) The first Prime Minister, Botha belonged to the South Africa Party ruled in cooperation with the British.
c) But a militant section of the South Africa Party formed the National Party under Herzog.
d) In 1920 elections, the National Party got 44 seats and the South Africa Party secured 41 seats.
e) At this juncture the British-dominated Unionist Party merged with the South Africa Party.
f) This gave Smuts a majority over the militant Afrikaner controlled National Party.

European Alliances and Counter - Alliances:
(i) In 1900 five of the European Great Powers were divided into two armed camps.
a) One camp consisted of the Central Powers namely Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy. They formed the Triple Alliance in 1882.
b) The other camp consisted of France and Russia. Their alliance was formed in 1894 with the promise of mutual help if Germany attacked either of them.
(ii) The Anglo-Japanese Alliance prompted France to seek an alliance with Britain to resolve colonial disputes over Morocco and Egypt.
(iii) In 1904 Entente Cordiale was signed between France and Britain.
(iv) Finally it led to the formation of Triple Entente of Britain, France and Russia.
Violent Forms of Nationalism:
England's Jingoism, France's Chauvinism and Germany's Kultur were militant forms of nationalism, contributing decisively to the outbreak of war.
Aggressive attitude of Germany:
a) Emperor Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany proclaimed Germany would be the leader of the world.
b) Germany's aggressive diplomacy and rapid building of naval bases convinced Britain a German navy could be directed only against her.
Imperial power politics in the Balkans:
a) The Young Turk Revolution of 1908, provided both Austria and Russia with the opportunity to resume their activities in the Balkans.
b) Austria and Russia met and agreed Austria should annex Bosnia and Herzegovina. This aroused intense opposition from Serbia. Germany gave Austria firm support.
c) The enmity between Austria and Serbia led to the outbreak of war in 1914.
The Balkan wars:
a) The Ottoman Empire extended over the Balkans and across Hungary to Poland.
b) The Turks and their subjects of different nationalities in the Balkans indulged in the most frightful massacres and atrocities.
c) The league attacked and defeated Turkish forces in the first Balkan War (1912-13).
d) According to the Treaty of London signed in May 1913 the new state of Albania was created and the other Balkan states divided up Macedonia between them.
e) The division of Macedonia, however, did not satisfy Bulgaria. Bulgaria attacked Serbia and Greece. But Bulgaria was easily defeated. The second Balkan War ended with the signing of the Treaty of Bucharest in August 1913.
Immediate cause:
a) The climax to these events in the Balkans occurred in Sarajevo in Bosnia. On 28 June 1914 the Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary, was assassinated by Princip, a Bosnian Serb.
b) The German army which was planning a war against both France and Russia wanted to use the occasion to its advantage.
c) The German violation of Belgian neutrality forced Britain to enter war.