(i) Human population dynamics is a field that tracks factors related to changes in the size of population and its characteristics
(ii) Predicting population changes is an important aspect of population studies
(iii) The demographic trend affects the economic, social, and environmental systems..
(iv) The size of Population and characteristics undergoes changes constantly

The ratio between the economically active and economically inactive of population is termed as dependency ratio.

The major pulse growing areas are Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh

(i) Bauxite is an important ore from which aluminium is extracted. 
(ii) It is found in the rock consisting mainly of hydrated aluminium oxides 
(iii) Bauxite is widely distributed as surface deposits in the areas of laterite soil.
(iv) Being light in weight and tough, aluminium is used in the manufacture of aircrafts and automobile engines. Bauxite is also used in the manufacture of cement and chemicals.

(i) Globalization was characterized by the rise of maritime European empires, in the 16^th and 17^th centuries.
(ii) In 17^th century, globalization became private business phenomenon like British East India Company described as the first multinational company.

(i) Personal Income is the total money income received by individuals and households of a country from all possible sources before direct taxes.
(ii) Personal Income can be expressed as
PI = NI Corporate Income Taxes - Undistributed corporate profits - Social security contribution + Transfer payment.

(i) Agricultural Policy
(ii) Industrial Policy
(iii) New Economic Policy

Habeas Corpus, Mandamus, Prohibition, Quo Warranto, Certiorari

The High Court of Madras is the one of the three High Courts in India established in the three Presidency Towns of Bombay, Calcutta and Madras by letters patent granted by Queen Victoria, bearing date 26 June 1862. The High Court building is the second largest judicial complex in the world after London.

(i) The term of the Chief Minister is not fixed.
(ii) He may remain as the Chief Minister as long as he enjoys the support of the majority of the members of the Legislative Assembly.
(iii) He has to resign when he loses confidence of the majority in the assembly.
(iv) It is understood that normally he completes 5 years term like other members in the Legislative Assembly.

A person who is not a member of the Parliament can be appointed as a minister but he has to get himself elected to the Parliament within six months

The Administrative power of a State extends only to its own territory and with respect to which it has legislative competence, whereas the Union has exclusive executive power over:
(a) The matters with respect to which Parliament has exclusive power to make laws and
(b) The exercise of its powers conferred by any treaty or agreement

(i) Directive Principles are not enforceable by the courts. But they are fundamental for the governance of the country.
(ii) The Government is duty-bound to apply these principles while making laws.
(iii) They aim at promoting the Social Welfare of the people.
(iv) Dr. B.R. Ambedkar described these principles as 'novel features' of the Indian Constitution.

The word 'Citizen' is derived from the Latin term 'Civis' It means resident of a City State.

Factors like latitude, distance from the sea, monsoon wind, relied on features and jet stream affect the climate of India.

(i) The deltaic plain is an extension of the Khadar land. It covers about 1.9 lakh sq.km in the lower reaches of the Ganga River.
(ii) It is an area of deposition as the river flows in this tract sluggishly.
(iii) The deltaic plain consists mainly of old mud, new mud, and marsh.
(iv) In the delta region, the uplands are called 'Chars' while the marshy areas are called 'Bils'.

(i) Ramalinga bore witness to hunger and poverty in the country: "I saw poor people, emaciated with hunger and terribly weary, going to every house, yet their hunger was not removed, and my heart suffered intensely.
(ii) Those who suffer with relentless disease, I saw them in front of me and my heart trembled.
(iii) I saw those people, poor and of unmatched honor, their hearts weary, and I grew weak:'

(i) Arya Samaj attempted to check the incidence of religious conversion in British India.
(ii) One of its main objectives was counter conversion, prescribing a purificatory ceremony called suddhi, directed at Hindus who had converted to Islam and Christianity.

(i) At the end of October 1945, the Jewish underground organizations like Irgun Zvai Leumi (Zionist Para-military Organization) and the Stern Gang (Zionist Terrorist Organization) began to launch terror attacks on a large scale.
(ii) Railways, bridges, airfields and government offices were blown up. The British government presented the dispute to the UN for a decision.
(iii) Succumbing to the pressure of great powers, the UN resolved to partition. Palestine into a Jewish state and an Arab state (29 November 1947).

In Palestine, the ancient home of Jews, only a few thousand Jews were living in 1900. Some 15 million were scattered around Europe and North America. This is referred to as the Diaspora.

The United States had its satellite states in Central America (Honduras, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Panama, and Guatemala), the Caribbean (Cuba, the Dominion Republic, and Haiti) and East Asia (the Philippines, South Korea, South Vietnam, and Thailand).

(i) The German strategy of lightning strikes was initially successful and the army penetrated 1000 miles into Russian territory very soon.
(ii) The German army then marched on Moscow. But ultimately, the resistance by the Soviet army and the fierce Russian winter defeated the German army.

(i) "We shall defend our island, whatever the cost may be. We shall fight on the beaches. We shall fight in the fields and in the streets. We shall never surrender."
(ii) This inspirational speech by Winston Churchill in June 1940 boosted the morale of the British people when there were real fears of an invasion by Germany.

"Speak softly and carry a big stick".

Gold Standard is a monetary system where a country's currency or paper money carried a value directly linked to gold.

i) In January 1917 the Germans proclaimed that they would sink even neutral ships in certain waters.
ii) Lusitania, an American ship was torpedoed by a German submarine.
iii) There was lot of resentment in the USA and President Wilson declared war against Germany.

(i) 1914 is a turning point in world history.
(ii) The political and social processes that began in 1789 culminated in the First World War that broke out in that year and decisively shaped the course of the twentieth century.
(iii) Historians therefore call this as 'the long twentieth century'.

i) A better economy introduces rapid development of the capital market.
ii) Standard of living has increased.
iii) Globalization rapidly increases better trade so that more people are employed.
iv) Introduced new technologies and new scientific research patterns
v) Globalization increases the GDP of a country.

Economic policies in India:
i) Agricultural policy
ii) Industrial policy
iii) New Economic policy

a) As Courts of appeal, all High Courts entertain appeals in civil and criminal cases from their subordinate Courts as well as on their own.
b) They have, however no jurisdiction over tribunals established under the laws relating to the Armed Forces of the Country.

(i) The Constitution of India grants special status to Jammu and Kashmir among Indian states, and it is the only state in India to have a separate constitution.
(ii) The Constitution of Jammu and Kashmir was adopted on the 17 November, 1957 and came into force on 26 January, 1957.
(iii) The Directive Principles of the State Policy and fundamental duties of the constitution are not applicable to the state of Jammu and Kashmir.
(iv) Right to Property, is still guaranteed as a fundamental right in Jammu and Kashmir.

i) The President is elected by an electoral college in accordance with the system of proportional representation by means of single transferable vote.
ii) The Electoral college consists of the elected members of both houses of Parliament and the elected members of the states and elected members of National Capital Territory of Delhi and Puducherry.
iii) The President is elected for a term of five years and can be re-elected.

i) Under Article 352, the President can declare emergency if he is satisfied that India's security is threatened due to war, external aggression or armed rebellion or if there is an imminent danger or threat.
ii) When a national emergency is declared on the ground of war or external aggression it is known as external emergency.
iii) When it is declared on the ground of armed rebellion it is known as internal emergency.

i) The centre-state relations can be studied under three heads
ii) They are,     
a) Legislative relations
b) Administrative relations
c) Financial relations.

Communication is a process that involves exchange of information, thoughts and ideas.
Communication is categorized into
(1) Personal communication and
(2) Mass communication

Jharkhand, Odisha, Chhattisgarh, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.

The delta of the Ganga - Brahmaputra
The deltas of Mahanadi, Godavari and Krishna rivers.

Narmada, Tapti, Mahi and Sabarmathi are the west following rivers of India.

i) Jyotiba Phule opened first school for "untouchables" in 1852 Poona.
ii) He launched the Satyashodak Samaj in 1870 to stir the non -Brahmin masses to self-respect and ambition.
iii) Phule opposed child marriage and supported widow remarriage.
iv) He and his wife devoted their lives for the upliftment of depressed classes and women.
v) Jyotiba opened orphanages and homes for widows.

There are many clauses but the three main clauses are:
i) Germany was forced to give up territories to the west, north and east of the German border.
ii) Germany had to disarm and was allowed to retain only a very restricted armed force
iii)  As reparations for the war, Germany was expected to pay for the military and civilian cost of the war to the Allied nations.

a) The 'Great Depression' dealt a death blow to Indian agriculture and the indigenous manufacturing sector.
b) The value of farm produce, declined by half. But the land rent to be paid by the peasant remained unchanged. In terms of prices of agricultural commodities, the obligation of the farmers to the state doubled.
c) The great fall in prices prompted Indian nationalists to demand protection for the internal economy.

i) Mustafa Kemal Pasha did a remarkable role for Turkey's rebirth as a nation.
ii) Kemal Pasha modernised Turkey and changed it out of all recognition.

a) Construction of dams
b) Raising of dams/ cleaning of tanks
1. Considering the ineffectiveness of tribunals, there is a need to look for community based approaches to resolve such disputes effectively, amicably and sustainably.
2. Conflicts over water are preventable provided the communities involved become responsible water managers.
3. As the issue is protracted over centuries, the solution available is that new dams can be constructed to store the rainwater that wastefully mingles in oceans.
4. The state government must propel the action to allocate and identify the places where the dams can be constructed to store the water during heavy rainfall.
5. These wise actions will reduce the water dispute to a greater extent, when there are ways to save the running rain water, we need not fight with neighbouring states to spare water for irrigation.
6. The expert committees must have a thorough survey of the land forms to build dams.
7. This is absolutely an implementable solution.

Indian agriculture and Indian farmers are plagued by several problems; some of them are natural and some others are manmade.
(i) Small and fragmented land-holdings: The problem of small and fragmented holdings is more serious in densely populated and intensively cultivated states in India.
(ii) High Costs of Inputs: Seed is a critical and basic input for attaining higher crop yields and sustained growth in agricultural production.
(iii) Infertile Soil: Indian soils have been used for growing crops over thousands of years without caring much for replenishing. This has led to depletion and exhaustion of soils resulting low productivity.
(iv) Lack of Irrigation: Only one- third of the cropped area falls under irrigated area. To make agriculture reliable, irrigation facility has to be developed.
(v) Soil erosion:  Large tracts of fertile land suffer from soil erosion by wind and water. Such kind of areas must be properly treated and restored to its original fertility.
(vi) Agricultural marketing: In rural India, agricultural marketing continues in bad shape. Due to the absence of sound marketing facility, the farmers have to depend on local traders and middlemen for the disposal of their farm products which is sold at a low price.
(vii) Inadequate storage facilities: Storage facilities in the rural areas are either totally absent or grossly inadequate. Under such conditions, the farmers are compelled to sell their products immediately after the harvest irrespective of the condition of market.

Electronic Media:
(i) Mass Communication enables millions of people to get the information at the same time.
(ii) It is a great way to provide education as well as entertainment.
(iii) It helps in creating awareness among the people regarding various national policies and programmes.
(iv) The Mass Communication Systems can provide the information to people in two methods.
Electronic Media:
(i) Radio broadcasting in India was started in 1923 by the Radio club of Bombay.
(ii) It was named as All India Radio (AIR) in 1936 and again it was renamed as Akashwani in 1957.
(iii) It broadcasts a variety of programs related to information, education and entertainment.
Print Media:
(i) Newspapers are the most common but powerful means of communication come under print media.
(ii) India has many newspapers which carry information on local, national and international events to the people

Goals of WTO:
(i) Raising and stabilizing the incomes of small scale farmers, farm workers and artisans.
(ii) More equitably distributing the economic gains, opportunities and risks associated with the production and sale of these goods.
(iii) Increasing the organisational and commercial capacities of producer groups.
(iv) Promoting labour rights and the right workers to organize.
(v) Promoting safe and sustainable farming methods and working conditions

a) Several important goods are services left out of the GDP:
i) The GDP includes only the goods and services sold in the market.
ii) The services provided by the parents to their children is very important but it is not included in the GDP because it is not sold in the market.
iii) Likewise clean air, which is vital for a healthy life, has no market value and is left out of the GDP.
b) GDP measures only quantity but not quality :
i) In the 1970s schools and banks did not permit the use of ballpoint pens.
ii) This is because, the ones available in India were of very poor quality.
iii) Since then, not only has there been a substantial increase in the quantity of ballpoint pens produced in India but their quality has also improved a lot.
iv) The improvement in quality of goods is very important but it is not captured by the GDP.
c) GDP does not tell us about the way income is described in the country:
The GDP of a country may be growing rapidly but income may be distributed so unequally that only a small percentage of people may be benefitting from it.
d) The GDP does not tell us about the kind of life people are living:
A high level of per capita real GDP can go hand - in - hand with very low health condition of people, an undemocratic political system, high pollution and high suicide rate.

(i) By the end of Second World War Viet Minh controlled the northern half of Vietnam. Viet Minh formed a government led by Ho Chi Minh in Hanoi.
(ii) This Viet Minh government quickly occupied the southern half of Vietnam. However, the Allied Powers decided at Potsdam that the British in the south and the Chinese in the north should defend Indo-China from the Japanese.
(iii) In March the two governments (French and Viet Minh) reached an agreement by which North Vietnam was to be a free state, within an Indo-Chinese Federation. But the new French constitution included all overseas colonies in a French Union.
(iv) In 1949 the French attempted to secure the support of the population by declaring Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia independent within the French Union, retaining only foreign affairs and defense under French control. However, the problem of Indo- China soon became involved in the Cold War.
(v) While the French were receiving considerable financial aid from America, the Viet Minh were helped by the new Chinese communist government. The French troops were eventually defeated.
(vi) South Vietnam, approximately of the same size and population, was ruled by Ngo Dinh Diem.
(vii) Diem refused to hold the elections to decide on a united Vietnam.
(viii) However, by 1962, it was clear that Diem was incapable of controlling the situation. This led to the posting of more US armed forces in the area.
(ix) The US bombed both North and South in the hope that it could force the liberation forces to abandon the struggle.
(x) The fighters of North Vietnam, trained in guerilla warfare, had grown out of spontaneous struggles against a repressive regime.
(xi) The American troops also used bacteriological weapons.
(xii) Incendiary bombs such as napalm and Agent Orange (to defoliate the forest cover) were used.
(xiii) Escalation of the total military outlay caused the US big business to protest. The youths rebelled against the conscription and the horrors of war.
(xiv) Anti-Vietnam War protests rocked universities and colleges across the US and in Europe and became part of the 1960s counterculture.
(xv) No other single issue united millions of people all over the world as the war of Vietnam.

(i) The Treaty also set up the League of Nations, on the initiative of President Woodrow Wilson of the United States.
(ii) The League was expected to mediate between countries and take action against countries which indulged in military aggression.
(iii) However, the United States was not interested in playing a global role or any role in European politics.
(iv) The popular mood favoured the traditional isolationist approach, and therefore the United States did not become a member of the League.
(v) The other Allied nations were also determined to maintain a noninterventionist attitude and, in consequence, the League remained an ineffectual international body.

(i) The relations between the two British colonies of Natal and Cape Colony and the two independent Boer states of Transvaal and the Orange Free State had long been unfriendly.
(ii) The discovery of gold in Transvaal, in 1886, led to large numbers of British miners settling in and around Johannesburg.
(iii) The Boers hated these people whom they referred to as Uitlanders (foreigners). The Boers taxed them heavily and denied political rights to them.
(iv) So the question was whether the British or the Boers were to be supreme in South Africa.
(v) Fearing attacks from the British, the Boers armed themselves and decided to attack.
(vi) The Boer War lasted for three years, from 1899 to 1902. Initially, the Boers were successful.
(vii) But by the first half of 1900, the Boer army was defeated. Pretoria was occupied.
(viii) In retaliation, the British destroyed farms and crops. They set up internment camps for Boer women and children.
(ix) Shortage of food, medical and sanitary facilities caused the death of 26,000 people.
(x) The British annexed the two Boer states. Boers were however promised self-government in due course.
(xi) In 1907 full responsible government was given to the Transvaal and the Orange Free State.
(xii) The four states formed into a union and the South Africa Act passed by the British parliament in 1909 provided for a Union Parliament at Cape Town.
(xiii) In May 1910 the Union of South Africa came into being.

(i) Even on 23 February 1917, when the socialists celebrated International Working Women's Day on that day, the Tsar seemed unchallengeable. But he had to abdicate on the morning of 2 March.
(ii) Though none called for strikes fearing that the time was not ripe for militant action, the bread shortages among women textile workers, many with husbands in the army, forced them to go on strike anyway and march through the factory areas of Petrograd, the capital of the Russian Empire.
(iii) Masses of women workers in a militant frame of mind demanding "Bread for workers" waved their arms towards factory workers and shouted, "Come out!" "Stop work!"
(iv) The city's 400,000 workers joined the movement the next day (24 February).

Functions of the Lok Sabha
​​​​​​​(i) Any bill can be introduced and passed in the Lok Sabha (Including Money Bill).
(ii) It has the same power as Rajya Sabha to participate in case of impeachment of a president and the judges of Supreme Court.
(iii) It has equal power as Rajya Sabha in passing any bill for a constitutional amendment.
(iv) Lok Sabha members have the power to elect the president, vice president.
(v) The motion of no confidence can only be introduced in Lok Sabha. If it is passed then the prime minister and other councils of ministers need to resign from their post.
Functions of the Rajya Sabha
(i) Any bill (except the money bills) needs to be approved by Rajya Sabha to get passed. If the bill gets stuck for more than six months then President calls for a joint session of both the houses to resolve the deadlock.
(ii) It has the same power as Lok Sabha, for passing any bill for a constitutional amendment.
(iii) The members of Rajya Sabha have the electoral power for selection of President, Vice President.
(iv) It has power in the impeachment procedure of president and judges of the supreme court and high court.
(v) Rajya Sabha has the power to make a state list subject into National Importance. If two third majority of the members of Rajya Sabha passes a resolution to support it.