Dr. Sun Yat-sen's three principles were:
i) Nationalism,
ii) Democracy,
iii) People's livelihood with Socialism as the ultimate object.

(i) In the two opium wars of 1832 and 1848, China was defeated and was compelled to open its ports to western powers.
(ii) The opening of China to western imperialism led to economic exploitation and the impoverishment of the Chinese people.

The US and the USSR.

i) In April 1961, while landing an army of Cuban exiles on the island of Bay of Pigs, the US bombed Cuban airfields with the objective of overthrowing Castro's regime.
ii) US Warships surrounded Cuba.
iii) The Kennedy government had received intelligence that the USSR was secretly installing nuclear missiles in Cuba.
iv) Finally, the Soviet President Khrushchev agreed to withdraw the missiles and thus the Missile Crisis was defused.

a) The capitalist countries led by the U.S. were politically designated as the First World.
b) The Communist States led by the Soviet Union came to be known as the Second world.
c) States outside these two were called Third World.

i) The US Conceived the Marshall Plan to bring the countries in the Western Europe under its influence.
ii) The plan sought to help the countries of Europe with American dollars to facilitate their early recovery from the destruction caused by the Second World War.

i) In 1955 Turkey, Iraq, Great Britain, Pakistan and Iran signed a pact known as Baghdad Pact.
ii) In 1958 the United States joined the organization and thereafter it came to be known as the Central Treaty Organization.
iii) This treaty was open to any Arab nation desiring peace and security in the region. CENTO was dissolved in 1979.

a) The disintegration of the Manchu dynasty began with the death of the Dowager-Empress in 1908. The new emperor was two-years old and the provincial governors began to assert their independence.
b) In October 1911 the local army mutinied and the revolt spread.
c) Provincial governors removed the Manchu garrisons and proclaimed their independence.

(i) By the end of Second World War Viet Minh controlled the northern half of Vietnam. Viet Minh formed a government led by Ho Chi Minh in Hanoi.
(ii) This Viet Minh government quickly occupied the southern half of Vietnam. However, the Allied Powers decided at Potsdam that the British in the south and the Chinese in the north should defend Indo-China from the Japanese.
(iii) In March the two governments (French and Viet Minh) reached an agreement by which North Vietnam was to be a free state, within an Indo-Chinese Federation. But the new French constitution included all overseas colonies in a French Union.
(iv) In 1949 the French attempted to secure the support of the population by declaring Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia independent within the French Union, retaining only foreign affairs and defense under French control. However, the problem of Indo- China soon became involved in the Cold War.
(v) While the French were receiving considerable financial aid from America, the Viet Minh were helped by the new Chinese communist government. The French troops were eventually defeated.
(vi) South Vietnam, approximately of the same size and population, was ruled by Ngo Dinh Diem.
(vii) Diem refused to hold the elections to decide on a united Vietnam.
(viii) However, by 1962, it was clear that Diem was incapable of controlling the situation. This led to the posting of more US armed forces in the area.
(ix) The US bombed both North and South in the hope that it could force the liberation forces to abandon the struggle.
(x) The fighters of North Vietnam, trained in guerilla warfare, had grown out of spontaneous struggles against a repressive regime.
(xi) The American troops also used bacteriological weapons.
(xii) Incendiary bombs such as napalm and Agent Orange (to defoliate the forest cover) were used.
(xiii) Escalation of the total military outlay caused the US big business to protest. The youths rebelled against the conscription and the horrors of war.
(xiv) Anti-Vietnam War protests rocked universities and colleges across the US and in Europe and became part of the 1960s counterculture.
(xv) No other single issue united millions of people all over the world as the war of Vietnam.

Communist Victory:
(i) With the surrender of the Japanese (1945), both the Kuomintang and the communists sought to occupy the Japanese areas.
(ii) In this race the Kuomintang was successful. The cities and railways soon fell into their hands.
(iii) Even the area around Peking was soon controlled by Chiang Kai-shek's forces, largely because of the military aid given by the USA.
(iv) With the massive support provided by the USA, Kuomintang government controlled the administration, ports and communication system.
(v) But the soldiers, mainly drawn from the peasants, were disillusioned and discontented.
(vi) Mao was keen on obtaining the support of the middle class.
(vii) Mao continued the use of guerrilla tactics but also ordered large-scale military movements.
(viii) Cities fell one by one and Chiang Kai-shek's army began to disintegrate quickly.
(ix) In the summer of 1948, Communist control had been established over most parts of China.

One of the momentous decisions taken in the post-War II era was to integrate the states of Western Europe. In doing so the Europeans wanted,
(i) To prevent further European Wars by ending the rivalry between France and Germany.
(ii) To create a united Europe to resist any threat from Soviet Russia.
(iii) To form a third force in the world to counter-balance the strength of the US and USSR.
(iv) To make full use of the economic and military resources of Europe by organizing them on a continental scale.
Council of Europe:
a) In May 1949 ten countries met in London and signed to form a Council of Europe.
b) The Council of Europe was established with its headquarters at Strasbourg.
European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC):
The European Defence Community (EDC) and the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) were established. The countries belonging to ECSC are France, West Germany, Italy, Belgium, Holland and Luxemburg.
European Economic Community (EEC):
The EEC eliminated barriers to the movement of goods, services, capital and labour.
The Single European Act:
a) The Single European Act came into force on July 1, 1987. It significantly expanded the EEC's scope giving the meetings of the EPC a legal basis. It also called for more intensive coordination of foreign policy among member countries.
b) According to the SEA, each member was given multiple votes, depending on the country's population. Approval of legislation required roughly two-thirds of the votes of all members.
European Union:
a) The Maastricht Treaty was signed on February 7, 1992. It created the European Union.
b) Today the European Union has 28 member states, and functions from its headquarters at Brussels, Belgium.

a) After the death of Sun Yat - Sen, Chiang Kai Shek became the leader of the Kuomintang,
b) The communist party was under Mao Tse -Tung and Chou En Lai.
c) The communists increased their influence among the workers and peasants and recruited them in the army
Retreat of Communists:
i) The Kuomintang represented the interests of the landlords and capitalists.
ii) Mao understood that the Kuomintang grip on the towns was very strong. A few hundred communists led by Mao retreated into the wild mountains. There they stayed for seven years.
iii) Kuomintang was unable to enter the mountains as Chiang Kai Shek had deal with a lot of problems.
Long March:
i) In 1934, the communist army of about 100,000 set out on a Long March. In 1935 only 20,000 reached northern Sheni after crossing 6,000 miles.
ii) By 1937, Mao had become the leader of over 10 million people of China.
Rise of Mao:
i) However Mao was keen on getting the support of the middle class.
ii) He declared that the communists wanted the rule of the people but not of the dictator.
iii) In 1949, the People's Republic of China emerged under the leadership of Mao Tse-tung.