Entrepreneurs play a most important role in the economic growth and development of a country's economy.
i) They promote development of industries and help to remove regional disparities by industrialising rural and backward areas.
ii) They help the country to increase the GDP and per capital income.
iii) They promote capital formation by mobilising the idle savings of the citizens and country's export.
iv) Entrepreneurs provide large-scale employment to artisans, technically qualified persons and professionals and to maximise profits by innovations.
v) They enable the people to avail better quality goods at lower prices, which results in the improvement of their standard of living.

Education:
i) Industries require skilled human resources.
ii) The state gives much importance to primary education to promote literacy and basic arithmetic skills, the state supplies vast technical human resources
iii) There are a number of engineering colleges, polytechnics and Industrial Training Centres
Infrastructure:
i) The widespread electrification has contributed to the spread of industries in smaller towns and villages
ii) Tamil Nadu is known for its excellent transport infrastructure It has a network of minor roads which connect rural parts of the state to nearby towns and cities
iii) Rural to urban connectivity is facilitated by public and private transport system,
Industrial promotion:
i) Active policy efforts have been made to promote specific sectors and also industrialisation in specific regions.
ii) Policies have been formulated to promote specific sectors like automobile, auto-components, bio-technology and information and communication.
iii) Several industrial promotion agencies have been put in place to provide supporting infrastructure to both large and small enterprises.

The following are the chief characteristics of a successful cluster:
i) Geographical proximity of Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs)
ii) Sectoral - Specialisation
iii) Close  inter-firm collaboration
iv) Inter-firm competition based on innovation
v) A socio-cultural identity which facilitates trust
vi) Multi skilled workforce.
vii) Active self-help organisations,
viii) Supportive regional and municipal governments.

i. Black money is funds earned on the black market on which income and other taxes have not been paid.
ii. The unaccounted money that is concealed from the tax administrator is called black money
Causes of Black money:
Several sources of black money are identified as causes
a) Shortage of goods
b) Licensing proceeding
c) Contribution of the industrial sector
d) Smuggling
e) Tax structure

i) TamilNadu has adopted an Universal PDS the rest of the states in India had a targeted PDS.
a) Universal PDS:
i) Under Universal PDS all the family ration card holders are entitled to the supplies from PDS.
b) Targeted PDS:
i) In the targeted PDS the beneficiaries are identified based on certain criteria and given their entitlements, leaving out the rest. Both the union and the state governments subsidised the supplies distributed through PDS.
ii) The level and quantum of subsidy also varied across states,
iii) Subsequently the National Food Security Act (NFSA) was passed by the Indian Parliament in 2013.
iv) The NFSA covers 50% of urban households and 75% of the rural households.
v) These households are known as priority households identified based on a set of criteria.
vi) Priority households of this country now have the right to food supply through PDS.
vii) The Union government supplies rice at the rate of 3 per kg, wheat at the rate of 2 kg, and millets at the rate of 1 per kg under NFSA.
viii) Tamil Nadu continues to have the universal system of PDS and supplies rice at free of cost to all card holders
ix) Tamil Nadu has issued bio-metric smart family cards.

i) Minimum support price is a price fixed by an expert group for a particular crop by considering various costs involved in the cultivation of that crop,
ii) After announcing the MSP the state will open procurement centers in places where these crops are widely grown.
iii) However, the farmers are free to sell in the open market if they get a better price for their crop produce.
iv) On the other hand if the open market price is lower than the MSP, the farmers would get an assured price (the MSP) by selling their produce to the FCI.
v) Minimum support price (MSP) for the crops were announced at the beginning of the season and the state procured the harvested grains through the Food Corporation of India (FCI).

OPEC:
i) It is a group of oil producing nations (i.e. Iraq, Iran, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia).
ii) Its membership is open to any country that exports crude oil.
OPEC'S mission:
i) To co-ordinate oil policies in its member countries.
ii) Help stabilise oil markets.
iii) To secure fair and stable income to petroleum producers.
iv) An efficient, economic and regular supply of oil to consuming nations.
v) A fair return on capital to those investing in the petroleum industry.
Helps other countries:
i) It helps finance projects with low interests loans.
ii) It provides grants to social and humanitarian projects.
iii) It has an Information centre with over 20,000 volumes including books, reports map and conference proceedings related to petroleum, energy and the oil market.
iv) It is open to the public and for the rescarchers and students.

Reason:
i) To be an alternative to World Bank and IMF to challenge U.S. supremacy.
ii) To provide self-owned and self managed organisations to carryout developmental and economical plan in its member nations.
Objectives:
i) To achieve regional development.
ii) It acts as a bridge between developed and developing countries.
iii) To contribute extensively to the development of humanity.
iv) To establish a more equitable and fair world.
v) Boost intra BRICS trade in their local currencies to increase trade cooperation and cope with the current international financial crisis.
vi) To promote the technological information exchange among the member states.
vii) To enhance inclusive economic growth that will lead to the creation of jobs, fight against poverty and accelerate the economic transformation of members.

Group	countries	Objectives
IBSA	India, Brazil South Africa	To focus on agriculture, energy, trade, culture and defence.
BCIM	Bangladesh,China, India,Myanmar	To respond to threats such as natural disasters and protect business interests.
MGC (Mekong Ganga Cooperation)	India, Cambodia,Laos, PDR Myanmar, Thailand,Vietnam	To create necessary infrastructural facilities in the Ganga-Mekong basin
BBIN	Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Nepal	For energy development.
EAS (East Asia Summit)	10 ASEAN nations + 8 strategic partners including US, China, India, Japan	To promote peace and stability

i) Preservation of national interest.
ii) Achievement of world peace.
iii) Disarmament.
iv) Fostering cordial relationship with other countries.
v) Solving conflicts by peaceful means.
vi) Independence of thought and action as per the principle of NAM.
vii) Equality in conducting international relations
viii) Anti-colonialism, anti-imperialism anti-racism.
Policy of Disarmament:
i) Since independence, global non-proliferation has been a dominant theme of India's nuclear policy
ii) So India supported UN disarmament programme.
iii) Indian nuclear programme in 1974 and 1998 is only done for strategic purposes.
iv) The two themes of India's nuclear doctrine are
v) No first use
vi) Credible minimum deterrence
vii) It has decided not to use nuclear power for offensive purposes and would never use against any non-nuclear state.
viii) Indo-US civilian nuclear deal marks a significant progress in India's foreign policy.

i) Geographical position and size of territory.
ii) Nation's history, traditions and philosophical basis.
iii) Natural resources.
iv) The compulsion of economic development.
v) Political stability and structure of government.
vi) The necessity of peace, disarmament and non-proliferation of nuclear weapons.
vii) Military strength.
viii) International milieu.

i) The term 'Non - Alignment' was coined by V. Krishna Menon in his speech at the United Nations in 1953.
ii) It has been regarded as the most important feature of India's foreign policy.
iii) It aimed to maintain national independence in foreign affairs by not joining any military alliance.
iv) The Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) was formed with a membership of 120 countries and 17 states as observers and 10 international organisations.
v) It has transformed from a political movement to an economical movement.
Founders of Non-Aligned Movement
i) Jawaharlal Nehru of India
ii) Tito of Yugoslavia
iii) Nasser of Egypt
iv) Sukarno of Indonesia
v) Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana

Population density:
i) The density of population in Tamil Nadu is 555 per sq.km as per the 2011 census.
ii) The national average density of population as per the 2011 Census is 382.
iii) Chennai is the densest district with 26,903 persons per sq.km.
iv) Kanyakumari, Tiruvallur, Kancheepuram, Madurai, Coimbatore, Cuddalore, Thanjavur, Nagapattinam, Salem, Vellore and Tiruchirappalli are the regions with high density of population
Causes for high density of population:
i) Agriculture and industrial development are the main causes for the density of population.
ii) Job opportunities in large towns and cities attract huge population.

a) Tamil Nadu has only 2.5% percent of India's water resources. More than 95% of the surface water and 80% of the ground water have already been put into use.
b) The state is heavily dependent on monsoon rains.
\(\begin{array}{|l|l|} \hline {\text { Surface Water Resources }} & {\text { Numbers }} \\ \hline \text { River Basin } & 17 \\ \text { Reservoirs } & 81 \\ \hline \text { Tanks } & 41,127 \\ \text { Tube wells and other wells } & 4,98,644 \\ \text { Open wells } & 15,06,919 \\ \hline \text { Total (Million Cubic metres) } & 2046788 \mathrm{MCM} \\ \hline \end{array}\)
Multipurpose River Valley Projects:
i) The Mettur dam was constructed in a gorge, where river Cauvery enters the plains. It is one of the oldest dam in India.
ii) The Bhavani Sagar dam is located 80 km away from Coimbatore city in the district of Erode. It has been constructed across the river Bhavani.
iii) The Amaravathi dam is situated 25 km away from Udumalpet in Tirupur district. The dam has been constructed across the river Amaravathi, a tributary of Cauvery.
iv) Krishnagiri dam is situated at- a distance of 7 km from Krishnagiri towards Dharmapuri.
v)  Sathanur Dam was constructed across the river Thenpennai in Chengam taluk. It is in the midst of Chennakesava hills.
vi) Mullaiperiyar dam was built by the British administration in 1895. It has been constructed on the Periyar river, which originates from. Thekkady hills of Kerala.
vii) Vaigai dam built across the river Vaigai near Andipatti. The dam with a height of 111 feet can store water up to 71 feet.
viii) Manimuthar dam is located about 47 km from Tirunelveli.
viii) The Papanasam dam is also known as Karaiyar dam and is located about 49 km away from Tirunelveli. The dam is used to irrigate Tirunelveli  and Thoothukudi districts.
ix) Parappalar project is located near Ottanchatram. Its storage capacity is 167 million cubic feet of water. It is about 75 km from Madurai and is in Palani taluk.

i) Tea, coffee, cashew, rubber and cinchona are the major plantation crops of the state.
ii) Tamil Nadu ranks second in area and production of tea in India next to Assam. Tea plantations are found in the hills of the Nilgiris and Coimbatore.
iii) Coffee plants are grown in the hills of Western Ghats as well as Eastern Ghats.
iv) The Nilgiris and Yercaud in Salem are the notable regions for tea plantations.
v) It is also found in the hilly slopes of Dindigul, Madurai, Theni and Dharmapuri districts. Tamil Nadu stands second in area and production of coffee next to Karnataka.
vi) Rubber plantations are significant in Kanyakumari.
vii) Pepper is confined to the warm and wet slopes of Eastern and Western Ghats of Tamil Nadu.
viii) Cashew is extensively cultivated in Cuddalore district.

Types of soil:
1. Alluvial soil
2. Black soil
3. Red soil
4. Laterite soil
5. Saline soil
1. Alluvial soil :
Characteristics : Alluvial soils are formed by the deposition of silt by the rivers. It is found in the river valley regions and the coastal plains of Tamil Nadu.
Crops cultivated: Paddy, sugarcane, banana and turmeric.
Distribution: Generally this type of soil is found in the districts of Thanjavur, Tiruvarur, Nagapattinam, Villupuram, Cuddalore, Tirunelveli and Kanyakumari. It is also found to a small extent along the river valleys in few interior districts
2. Black soil:
Formation: Black soil are formed by weathering of igneous rocks.
Characteristics : It is fine textured and clayey in nature. It is poor in phosphoric acid, nitrogen and organic matter.
Creps cultivated: Cotton, Sorghum, Cumbu and fodder crops.
Distributions: It is found in Coimbatore, Madurai, Virudhunagr, Tirunelveli and Thoothukudi districts.
3. Red soil:
Characteristics : This soil is sandy and loamy in texture. Red soil is porous, friable and non-retentative of moisture
Crops cultivated: Paddy, ragi, tobacco and vegetables.
Distribution: It is found in Sivagangai and Ramanathapuram districts.
4. Laterite soil:
Formation: It is formed by the process of intense leaching.
Crops cultivated: Paddy, ginger, pepper, plantains, coffee and tea.
Distribution: Kancheepuram, Tiruvallur, Thanjavur and Nilgiris districts.
5. Saline soil :
It is confined to the Coromandel coast. Vedaranyam has a pocket of saline soil.

Winter season:
a) During January and February, the vertical rays of the sun fall between the Tropic of Capricorn and the Equator. Hence, Tamil Nadu and India on the whole receive slanting rays from the sun.
b) So, the weather is slightly cooler during these months. The difference between summer and winter temperature is not very high. Winter temperature in Tamilnadu varies from 15°C to 25°C
Summer Season:
a) The apparent migration of the Sun towards north during March April and May results in the reception of vertical sun's rays by South India. Thus there is a steady rise in temperature from the equator. Hence, Tamil Nadu located to the south of Tropic of Cancer, experiences high temperature
b) Generally the temperature varies from 30°C to more than 40°C. During this season particularly in the month of May, southern part of the state receives some rainfall from pre-monsoon showers (Mango/Blossom showers) and some parts experience convectional rainfall.

1. The river Cauvery originates at Talakaveri  in the Kodagu district of Karnataka in the Western ghats.
2. It forms Hogenakkal waterfalls in Dharmapuri District.
3. Mettur dam is located across the river in Salem district.
4. A tributary called Bhavani joins Cauvery on the right bank.
5.Two more tributaries Noyyal and Amaravathi confluence Cauvery at Thirumukkudal and this
region is called "Agandra Cauvery".
6. In Tiruchirapalli district, the river branches into two parts. The northern branch is called Coleroon or Kollidam and the southern branch remains the Cauvery. These two again join to form Srirangam Island.
7. Kallanai has been constructed across the Cauvery.
8. The delta of Cauvery in the coast is called as the 'Garden of South India'.
9. It merges into Bay of Bengal to the south of Cuddalore.

Periyar E.V. Ramasamy was the founder of the Self-Respect Movement.
Caste based:
a) The Self-Respect Movement introduced a programme of non-Brahmin uplift in Tamil Nadu.
b)The Movement criticized Brahminism and the cultural hegemony of the Brahmins.
c) It advocated a casteless society devoid of rituals and differences based on birth..
d) The movement declared rationality and self-respect as the birthright of all human beings.
Through newspapers:
a) Periyar started a number of newspapers like Kudi Arasu, Revolt, Puratchi and Viduthalai.
b) He expressed his opinion on social issues in each of its issues.
Education:
a) He stressed on compulsory elementary education to all.
b) He opposed the introduction of Kula Kalvi Thittam.
Anti Hindi Stance:
a) Periyar took an anti-Hindi stance.
b) He was against the introduction of Hindi in schools.
Periyar on religion:
a) Periyar opposed superstitions.
b) He advocated intercaste and self respect marriages.
d) He fought for the temple entry of untouchables.
Periyar, a Feminist:
a) He was critical of patriarchy. He condemned child-marriage and the devadasi system.
b) He believed that property rights for women would provide them a social status and protection.
c) He welcomed equal rights for males and females in property, guardianship and adoption.
d) Periyar's Self Respect Movement worked for emancipation of women.

South Indian Liberal Federation (Justice Party):
a) On 20 November 1916 around 30 prominent non-Brahmin leaders including Dr. C. Natesanar, Sir Pitti Theyagarayar, T.M. Nair and Alamelu Mangai Thayarammal came together to form the South Indian Liberation Federation.
b) Later, the South Indian Liberation Federation came to be called Justice party.
Programmes and Activities:
a) The Justice Party is the fountain head of the non-Brahmin Movement in the country.
b) The Justice Party government widened education and employment opportunities for the majority of the population.
c) The Justice removed the legal hindrances restricting inter-caste marriages and broke the barriers that prevented Depressed Classes from the use of public wells and tanks.
d) The Justice Party government ordered that public schools accommodate the children of the Depressed Classes.
e) Hostels were established for the students belonging to his social group.
f) Women were permitted to participate in the electoral politics in 1921.
g) The Justice Party worked towards legislating provisions for communal representation reservations for various communities.
h) Two Communal Government Orders were passed to ensure equitable distribution in appointments among various castes and communities.
i) The Justice Party rule established the Staff Selection Board in 1924 for the selection of government officials.
j) In 1929, the Public Service Commission was established.
Towards Religion:
a) The Justice Party further concentrated on reforms in religious institutions.
b) The Justice Party introduced the Hindu Religious Endowment (HRE) Act in 1926. It enabled any individual, irrespective of their caste affiliation, to become a member of the temple. committee and govern the resources of the religious institutions.

Tamil Renaissance:
i) The cultural hegemony of colonialism and the rise of humanism brought several changes in the socio-cultural life of the Indian subcontinent.
ii) Modern Tamil Nadu too experienced such a historical transition.
iii) Tamil language and culture played a significant role in their identity construction.
iv) The introduction of printing press, linguistic research on Dravidian languages, etc.... underpinned the process of Tamil renaissance.
v) Although religious literature was taken up predominantly for publication in the early years after the advent of printing technology, things began to change gradually,
vi) Works that can be described as secular were taken up for publishing.
Advent of the Printing Technology:
i) In the nineteenth century, Tamil scholar's like C.W. Damotharanar (1832-1901), and U. V. Swaminathar (1855-1942) spent their lifetime in the rediscovery of the Tamil classics.
C.W. Damotharanar:
i) C.W. Damotharanar collected and edited different palm-leaf manuscripts of the Tamil grammar and literature.
ii) His editions included such texts as Tolkappiyam, Viracholiyam, Iraiayanar Akapporul, Ilakkana Vilakkam, Kaliththokai and Chulamani.
U.V. Swaminathar:
i) U.V. Swaminathar, took efforts to publish the classical texts such as Civakachinthamani,
ii) Pathitrupattu, Purapporul Venpa Malai, Manimekalai, Ainkurunuru and Pathitrupathu.
iii) This provided the Tamil people with a revelation about their heritage.
iv) Therefore, the rediscovery of ancient classics and their publication is considered the foundation of Tamil renaissance.
Works of scholars:
i) The publication of these ancient literary texts created an awareness among the Tamil people about their historical tradition, language, literature and religion.
ii) Modern Tamils founded their social and cultural identity on the ancient Tamil classics, collectively called the Sangam literature.
iii) Tamil intellectuals of this period identified the fundamental differences between Tamil/Dravidian/Egalitarian and Sanskrit/ Aryan/ Brahmanism.
iv) They argued that Tamil was a language of Dravidian people, who are non-Brahmin and their social life was casteless, gender-sensitised and egalitarian.
v) Tamil renaissance contributed to the origin and growth of Dravidian consciousness in the Tamil country.
vi) These ideas are exemplified in the Tamil invocation song written by Manonmaniam P.Sundaranar.
Other scholars:
i) C.W. Damotharanar, U.V Swaminathar, Thiru. Vi. Kalyanasundaram, Parithimar Kalaignar, Maraimalai Adigal, Subramanian Bharati, S. Vaiyapuri and the poet Bharatidasan, in their own ways and through their writings contributed to the revival of Tamil literature.
ii) Maraimalai Adigal's pure Tamil Movement, the language reforms of Periyar and Tamil Isai movement helped to galvanise the Tamil language.

a) Salt March to Vedaranyam:
i) Tamil Nadu was in the forefront of the Civil Disobedience Movement.
ii) Rajaji organised and led a salt satyagraha march to Vedaranyam
iii) The march started from Tiruchirappalli on 13 April, 1930 and reached Vedaranyam in Thanjavur district on 28 April.
iv) A special song was composed for the march by Namakkal V. Ramalinganar.
v) Despite a brutal crackdown by the police, the marching satyagrahis were provided a warm reception along the route.
vi) On reaching Vedaranyam 12 volunteers under the leadership of Rajaji broke the salt law by picking up salt.
vii) Rajaji was arrested, T.S.S. Rajan, Rukmini Lakshmipathi, Sardar Vedarathanam, C. Swaminathar and K. Santhanam were among the prominent leaders who participated in the Vedaranyam Salt Satyagraha.
b) Widespread agitations in Tamil districts:
i) The Satyagrahis under the leadership of T. Prakasam and K. Nageswara Rao set up a camp at Udayavanam near Madras. However, the police arrested them.
ii) It led to a hartal in Madras.
iii) Volunteers who attempted to offer salt Satyagraha in Rameshwaram were arrested.
iv) Mill workers struck work across the province.
v) Women participated enthusiastically.
vi) Rukmani Lakshmipathi was the first woman to pay penalty for violation of salt laws.
vii) Police used brutal force to suppress the movement.

a) There was an increase in the number of educated non-Brahmins.
b) They raised the issue of caste discrimination and unequal opportunities in government employment and representation in elected bodies, which were dominated by Brahmins.
c) Further, the Congress was also overwhelmingly composed of Brahmins.
Madras Dravidian Association:
a) The non-Brahmins organised themselves into political organisations to protect their interests.
b) In 1912 the Madras Dravidian Association was founded. C. Natesanar played an active role as its secretary.
d) On 20 November 1916 a meeting of about thirty non-Brahmins was held under the leadership of P. Thyagarayar, Dr. T.M. Nair and C. Natesanar in Chennai.
The South Indian Liberal Federation:
The South Indian Liberal Federation (SILF) was founded to promote the interests of the non-Brahmins.
Justice Ministry:
a) The Congress boycotted the elections of 1920.
b) The Justice Party won 63 of 98 elected seats in the Legislative Council.
c) A. Subburayalu of the Justice  Party became the first chief minister.
d) After the 1923 elections, Raja of Panagal of the Justice Party formed the ministry.

a) Swadeshi Movement:
i) The partition of Bengal (1905) led to the Swadeshi Movement.
ii) The Swadeshi movement made a deep impact in Tamil Nadu.
iii) The Calcutta Congress which called upon the nation to promote Swadeshi enterprise, boycott foreign goods and promote, national education.
b) Response in Tamil Nadu:
i) V.O. Chidambaranar, V. Chakkaraiyar, Subramania Bharati and Surendranath Arya were some of the prominent leaders in Tamil Nadu.
ii) Public meetings were organised in various parts of Tamil Nadu.
iii) Tamil was used on the public platform for the first time to mobilise the people.
iv) Subaramania Bharati's patriotic songs stirred patriotic emotions.
v) Many journals were started to propagate Swadeshi ideals. Swadesamitran and India were prominent journals.
c) Swadeshi Steam Navigation Company
i) One of the most enterprising acts was the launching of the Swadeshi Steam Navigation Company at Thoothukudi by V.O. Chidambaranar.
ii) He purchased two ships Gallia and Lavo and plied them between Thoothukudi and
Colombo.
d) Tirunelveli Uprising:
i) V.O.C and Subramania Siva organised the mill workers in Thoothukudi and Tirunelveli.
ii) In 1908, he led a strike in the Coral Mills.
iii) V.O.C and Subramania Siva organized a public meeting to celebrate the release of Bipin, So they were arrested.
iv) The news of the arrest sparked riots in Tirunelveli, leading down to burning of police station , court building and municipal office .
v) It led to the death of four people in police firing.
vi) V.O.C was treated harshly in prison and was made to pull the heavy oil press.
vii) To avoid imprisonment Subramania Bharati moved to Pondicherry which was under French rule.

i) The Khilafat committee meeting in Allahabad on 9 June 1920 adopted Gandhi's non-violent, non-cooperation programme.
ii) The 1920s saw a series of communal riots between the Hindus and the Muslims.
iii) Hindu Mahasabha was gaining in popularity under Madan Mohan Malaviya and the Muslim League under the Ali brothers.
iv) Serious efforts by Gandhi and Muhammad Ali Jinnah who at that time believed Swaraj was possible only with Hindu-Muslim unity, failed to stem the communal riots.
v) Jinnah proposed an amendment to the reservation of seats in the central legislature.
vi) He demanded that one-third of the seats be reserved for Muslims.
vii) He proposed a resolution which came to be known as Jinnah's fourteen points. However it was also rejected.
viii) Jinnah demanding separate state for Muslims revived the Muslim League in 1934.
ix) He was one of the staunchest critics of the Congress Ministries. He declared the day when the congress ministries resigned as the "Day of Deliverance".
x) By 1940 he demanded a separate state for the Muslims. He argued that in an independent India the Muslims would lose all political power to the Hindus.
xi) The Hindu Mahasabha and the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) took a pronounced anti-Muslim stance.
xii) The British policy of divide and rule through measures such as Partition of Bengal, Communal Award, had encouraged the vested interests out to exploit the religious differences.
xiii) When the interim government was formed, only after some hesitation the Muslims joined it.
xiv) Hartals and demonstrations took place which soon turned into Hindu-Muslim conflict.
xv) So partition of India became inevitable.
xvi) On the basis of the Mount batten Plan India was partitioned into two countries and given independence.

Lahore Congress:
i) The Congress Session was held in Lahore in December 1929 with Jawaharlal Nehru as the president. Poorna Swaraj was declared as the goal.
ii) It was also decided to boycott the Round Table conference and launch a Civil Disobedience Movement.
Civil Disobedience Movement:
A charter of demands was presented to the Viceroy Lord Irwin with an ultimatum to comply by 31 January 1930. When the Viceroy did not respond Gandhi launched the Civil Disobedience movement.
Salt Satyagraha Movement:
i) The inclusion of abolition of Salt tax was a brilliant tactical decision.
ii) It transformed Civil Disobedience Movement into a mass movement drawing all sections of the population including women in the streets.
iii) On 12 March 1930 Gandhi set out from Sabarmati Ashram with 78 of its inmates and reached Dandi on 5 April, 1930.
iv) The next morning he took a lump of salt breaking the salt law.
v) In Tamil Nadu C. Rajaji, led a similar salt march from Tiruchirappalli to Vedaranyam.
vi) In the North West frontier province Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan led the movement..
vii) Gandhi was arrested at midnight and sent to Yerawada jail.
viii) Jawaharlal Nehru, Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan and other leaders were swiftly arrested.
ix) It was the biggest mass movement India had ever witnessed. But no violence was reported anywhere.

Satyagraha in South Africa:
i) Indians in the Transvaal had to pay a poll tax £.3, could not own land except in areas marked for them, and could not move outdoors after 9 pm without a permit.
ii) Gandhi launched a struggle against such unjust laws.
iii) He experimented with it for fighting the issues of immigration and racial discrimination.
iv) Meetings were held and registration offices of immigrants were picketed.
v) Even when the police let loose violence no resistance was offered by the satyagrahis.
vi) Finally by the Smuts-Gandhi Agreement the poll tax on indentured labourers was abolished.
Gandhi's Early Satyagraha in India:
i) Gandhi regarded Gopal Krishna Gokhale, whom he had met on previous visits to India, as his political guru.
ii) On his advice Gandhi travelled the length and breadth of the country before plunging into politics.
iii) It is on one of these journeys through Tamil Nadu that Gandhi decided to discard his following robes and wear a simple dhoti.
Champaran Satyagraha:
i) In Champaran in Bihar the tinkathia system was practiced. Und this exploitative system the peasants were forced by the European planters to cultivate indigo.
ii) Gandhi went to Champaran. He tried to free the peasants from the exploitation of the European planters.
iii) He led the Champaran Satyagraha.
iv) The tinkathia system was abolished. This ended the oppression of the peasants by the Indigo planters.
v) Ahmedabad mill strike (1918) and the Kheda Satyagraha (1918) helped Gandhi establish himself as a leader of mass struggle.
Rowlatt Satyagraha
i) The Rowlatt Act was enacted which provided for excessive police powers, arrest without warrant and detention without trial.
ii) Gandhi called it a 'Black Act' and in protest called for a nation-wide satyagraha on 6 April 1919.
iii) It was to be a non-violent struggle with fasting and prayer, and it was the earliest anti-colonial struggle spread across the country
Khilafat Movement
i) Khilafat Movement led by the Ali brothers, Maulana Mohamed Ali and Maulana Shaukat Ali. Gandhi supported and saw in it an opportunity to unite Hindus and Muslims.
ii) Gandhi supported Shaukat Ali's proposal of three national slogans, Allaho Akbar, Bande Mataram and Hindu-Musslamanki Jai.
iii) The Khilafat Committee meeting in Allahabad on 9 June 1920 adopted Gandhi's non-violent non-cooperation programme.

Partition of Bengal :
a) Partition of Bengal in 1905 was the most unpopular of all.
b) The partition led to wide spread protests all across India, starting a new phase of the Indian national movement.
c) The idea of partition was devised to suppress the political activities against the British rule in Bengal by creating a Hindu-Muslim divide.
d) Instead of dividing the Bengali people along the religious line the partition united them.
Anti-partition movement :
a) The boycott of British goods was one such method.
b) The agenda of Swadeshi Movement was still restricted to secure an annulment of partition.
c) The moderates were very much against utilising the campaign to start a full-fledged passive resistance.
d) But the militant nationalists were in favour of extending the movement beyond Bengal and to initiate a full-scale mass struggle.
e) The day Bengal was officially partitioned, 16 October 1905 was declared as a day of mourning.
f) Thousands of people took bath in the Ganga and marched on the streets of Calcutta singing 'Vande Mataram'.
Boycott and Swadeshi Movement in Bengal (1905-1911)
a) Boycott and swadeshi were always interlinked to each other and part of the wider plan to make India self-sufficient.
b) Four major trends can be discerned during the Swadeshi Movement in Bengal.
i) The Moderate Trend
ii) Militant Nationalism
iii) Constructive Swadeshi
iv) Revolutionary terrorism

Causes
a) Annexation policy of British India
In the 1840s and 1850s more territories were annexed through two major policies.
The Doctrine of Paramountcy
a) British claimed themselves as paramount, exercising supreme authority.
b) New territories were annexed on the grounds that the native rulers were corrupt and inept.
The Doctrine of Lapse:
a) If a native ruler did not have a male heir to the throne, the territory was to 'lapse' into British India upon the death of the ruler.
b) Satara, Sambalpur, parts of the Punjab, Jhansi and Nagpur were annexed by the British through this policy.
b) Insensitivity to Indian cultural sentiments 
a) In 1806 the sepoys at Vellore mutinied against the new dress code, which prohibited Indians from wearing religious marks on their foreheads and having whiskers on their chin. They had to replace their turbans with a round hat.
b) It was feared that the dress code was part of their effort to convert soldiers to Christianity.
c) Similarly in 1824, the sepoys at Barrackpur near Calcutta refused to go to Burma by sea since crossing the sea meant the loss of their caste.
d) The sepoys were also upset with discrimination in salary and promotion.
e) Indian sepoys were paid much less than their European counterparts.
f) They felt humiliated and racially abused by their seniors.
c) Immediate cause:
a)The precursor to the revolt was the circulation of rumors about the cartridges of the new Enfield rifle.
b)There was strong suspicion that the new cartridges had been greased with cow and pig fat.
c)The cartridge had to be bitten off before loading (pork is forbidden to the Muslims and the cow is sacred to a large section of Hindus).

Causes for the revolt:
i) The British had acquired the revenue districts of Salem and Dindigul under their control.
ii) The status of the Raja of Thanjavur was reduced.
iii) The nawab of Arcot was to cede five districts to the British
Grievances of the Indian soldiers:
i) The sepoys in the British Indian army nursed a strong sense of resentment over low salary and poor prospects of promotion.
ii) The English army officers' scant respect for the social and religious sentiments of the Indian Sepoys also angered them.
The New army regulations:
i) The Indian soldiers were asked not to wear caste marks or ear rings when in uniform.
ii) They were to be cleanly shaven on the chin and maintain uniformity about how their moustache looked.
Outbreak of the Revolt:
i) On 10 July 1806, in the early hours, the sepoys started the revolt.
ii) Colonel Fan Court, who commanded the garrison, was the first victim.
iii) Colonel Mekerras of the 23^rd regiment was killed next.
iv) Major Armstrong was also killed.
v) About a dozen other officers were killed within an hour or so.
Gillespie's Brutality:
i) Major Cootes, who was outside the Fort, informed Colonel Gillespie, the cavalry commandant in Arcot
ii) Gillespie reached the fort along with a squadron of cavalry under the command of Captain Young at 9.00 am.
iii) In the meantime, the rebels proclaimed Fateh Hyder, Tipu's eldest son, as their new ruler and hoisted the tiger flag of Mysore sultans in the Fort.
iv) But the uprising was swiftly crushed by Col. Gillespie, who threw to winds all war ethics.
v) In the course of suppression, according to an eyewitness account, eight hundred soldiers were found dead in the fort alone.
vi) Six hundred soldiers were kept in confinement in Tiruchirappalli and Vellore awaiting inquiry.
Consequences of Revolt :
i) Six of the rebels convicted by the Court of Enquiry were blown from the guns; five were shot dead, eight hanged.
ii) Tipu's sons were ordered to be sent to Calcutta.
iii) The officers and men engaged in the suppression of the revolt were rewarded with prize money and promotion.
iv) Col. Gillespie was given 7,000 pagodas. However, the commander-in-chief Sir John Cradock, the Adjutant General Agnew and Governor William Bentinck were held responsible for the revolt, removed from their office, and recalled to England.
v) The military regulations were treated as withdrawn.
Estimate of Revolt :
i) The Vellore Revolt failed because there was no immediate help from outside.
ii) Recent studies show that the organising part of the revolt was done perfectly by Subedars Sheik Adam and Sheik Hamid and Jamedar Sheik Hussain of the 2^nd battalion of 23^rd regiment and two Subedars and the Jamedar Sheik Kasim of the 1st battalion of the 1st regiment.
iii) Vellore Revolt had all the forebodings of the Great Rebellion of 1857.
iv) The only difference was that there was no civil rebellion following the mutiny.
v) The 1806 revolt was not confined to Vellore Fort.
vi) It had its echoes in Bellary, Walajabad, Hyderabad, Bengaluru. Nandydurg and Sankaridurg.

i) In June 1801 Marudhu Pandiyars issued a proclamation of Independence which is called Tiruchirappalli Proclamation.
ii) Chinna Marudhu collected nearly 20,000 men to challenge the English army.
iii) British reinforcements were rushed from Bengal, Ceylon and Malaya.
iv) The rajas of Pudukkottai, Ettayapuram and Thanjavur stood by the British.
v) Divide and rule policy followed by the English spilt the forces of the Palaykkarars soon.
Fall of Sivagangai :
i) In May 1801, the English attacked the rebels in Thanjavur, Thiruchirappalli, Piranmalai and Kalayarkoil.
ii) They were again defeated by the forces of the English.
iii) In the end the superior military strength and the able commanders of the English Company prevailed
iv) The rebellion failed and Sivagangai was annexed in 1801.
Outcomes:
i) Marudhu brothers were executed in the fort of Thirupathur.
ii) Oomathurai and Sevathaiah were captured and beheaded.
iii) Seventy three rebels were exiled to Penang in Malaya.
iv) The palayakkarars fell to the English. The rebellion was suppressed
v) It led to the liquidation of all local chieftains of Tamil Nadu.
vi) The Carnatic Treaty was signed.
vii) The palayakkarar system came to an end in Tamil Nadu.

Veerapandya Kattabomman :
i) He became the Palayakkarar of Panchalamkurichi at the age of thirty, on the death of his father, Jagavira Pandya Kattabomman.
ii) The company had gained the right to collect taxes from Panchalamkurichi.
iii) The company appointed its Collectors to collect taxes from all the Palayams.
iv) The Collectors humiliated the Palayakkarars and adopted force to collect the taxes.
v) This was the bone of contention between the English and Kattabomman.
Confrontation with Jackson :
i) The land revenue arrears from Kattabomman was 3310 Pagodas in 1798.
ii) So Collector Jackson ordered Kattabomman to meet him in Ramanathapuram.
iii) Kattabomman met Jackson in Ramanathapuram on 19 September, 1798.
iv) It is said that Kattabomman had to stand for three hours before the haughty Collector Jackson.
v) Sensing danger, Kattabomman tried to escape along with his minister Sivasubraminanar.
vi) Oomaithurai suddenly entered the fort with his men and helped the escape of Kattabomman.
vii) Sivasubramanianar was taken prisoner.
viii) Kattabomman appeared before the committee that sat on 15 December 1798 and reported on what transpired in Ramanathapuram.
ix) The committee found Kattabomman was not guilty.
x) Jackson was dismissed from service.
xi) Kattabomman cleared almost all the revenue arrears leaving only a balance of 1080 Pagodas.
Kattabomman and the Confederacy of Palayakkarars:
i) Kattabomman was interested in this confederacy.
ii) Marudhu Brothers and Kattabomman jointly decided on a confrontation with the English.
iii) Kattabomman tried to influence Sivagiri Palayakkarar who was a tributary to the Company.
iv) So the Company ordered the army to march on to Tirunelveli.
The siege of Panchalamkarichi :
i) A British force advanced towards Tirunelveli under the leadership of major Bannerman.
ii) On 1^st September 1799 an ultimatum was served on Kattabomman to surrender.
iii) Kattabomman's "evasive reply" prompted Bannerman to attack his fort.
iv) Bannerman moved his entire army to Panchalamkurichi on 5 September.
v) They cut off all the communications to the fort.
vi) Bannerman deputed Ramalinganar to convey a message asking Kattabomman to surrender.
Execution of Kattabomman :
i) Kattabomman escaped to Pudukottai. The British put a prize on his head.
ii) Betrayed by the rajas of Ettayapuram and Pudukottai, Kattabomman was finally captured.
iii) A trial was conducted in front of the palayakkarars.
iv) During the trial Kattabomman bravely admitted all the charges levelled against him.
v) Kattabomman was hanged from a tamarind tree in the old fort of Kayathar, close to Tirunelveli.

i) The benefits of globalization extend to all countries that will not happen automatically.
ii) The fear that globalization leads to instability in the developing world.
iii) The industrial world that increased global competition will lead in race to the bottom in wages, labour right and employment practice.
iv) It leads to global imbalance.
v) Globalization has resulted with the embarrassment
vi) Globalization has led to an increase in activities such as child labour and slavery.
vii) Consumption of more junk food that led to the degradation of health and spread of disease.
viii) Globalization has led to environmental degradation

Southern Indian trade guilds were formed by merchants in order to organize and expand their trading activities. Trade guilds become channels through which Indian culture was exported to other lands.
Early traders:
i) Kalinga traders traded with Southeast Asia at an early date.
ii) They traded in red coloured stones and cotton textiles.
European Traders in South India:
The trading activities of the various European companies which came to India during this period.
The Discovery of a new all-sea route from Europe to India Via cape of Good Hope by Vasco do Gama
had for reaching repercussions on the civilized world
The Portuguese:
i) Vasco da Gama landed at Calicut on the May 1498.
ii) The second visit of, Vasco da Gama led to the establishment of trading stations at Calicut, Cochin and Cannanore.
iii) Cochin was the early capital of the Portuguese in India.
The Dutch :
(i) The Dutch East India Company was formed in 1602.
ii) They established trading centres at Masulipatnam, Pettapoli, Devanampatinam and Pulicat.
iii) Pulicat was their headquarters.
The British :
(i) The English East India Company was established in 1600.
ii) They established trading centres at Masulipatnam and Pulicat.
iii) By the grant of "Golden Fireman" they were allowed to trade freely in their ports.
iv) In 1639 they built Fort St. George in Madras. It became their headquarters.
The Danes:
(i) The Danish East India Company arrived at India in 1616.
ii) Tranquebar was their headquarters.
iii) They failed to strengthen themselves and in 1845 they left India.
The French:
(i) The first French factory was established in 1668.
ii) The Dutch captured Pondicherry but was handed back to the French.
iii) In 1701, Pondicherry was the headquarters of the French

The term of 'Globalization' was introduced by Prof. Theodore Levitt. Globalization is the integration of Accountry with the world economy. Basically, globalization signifies a process of internationalization plus liberalization. The history of globalization can be discussed on three stages.
Archaic Globalization:
i) During the Hellenistic age an early form of globalization existed. It was known as Archaic globalization.
ii) The trade link between Roman empire, Parthian empire and Han dynasty made commercial links between these powers and inspired the development of the Silk Road.
iii) The Islamic age and the advent of Mongol empire facilitated travel along silk road. This pre-modern phase is known as archaic globalization.
Proto Globalization:
i) This phase was characterized by rise of maritime European empires like the Portuguese, the Spanish, the Dutch and the British empires.
ii) Globalization became private business phenomenon.
iii) The English East India Company was the first multinational company followed by the Dutch East India Company.
Modern Globalization:
i) The 19^th century witnessed the advent of Globalization approaching its modern form.
ii) The global trade in the 20" century shows a higher share of trade in merchant production, a growth of the trade in services and the rise of production and trade by multinational firms.

The government of India has framed many economic policies for increasing the rate of economic growth. The important economic policies are:
a) Agricultural policy:
i) Agricultural policy is the set of government decisions and actions relating to domestic agriculture and imports of foreign agricultural products.
Some agricultural policies:
i) Price policy
ii) Land reform policy
iii) Green Revolution
iv) Irrigation policy
v) Food policy
vi) Agricultural labour policy
vii) Co-operative policy
b) Industrial policy:
i) It is an important aspect of any economy.
ii) It creates employment.
iii) It promotes research and development
iv) It leads to modernization and ultimate makes the economy self-sufficient.
v) It is closely related to development of trade.
Some industrial policies:
i) Textile industry policy
ii) Sugar industry policy
iii) Price policy of industrial growth
iv) Small scale industrial policy
v) Industrial Labour policy
c) New Economic policy:-
The economy of India had undergone policy in the beginning of the 1990s.
Some economic reforms:
i) New model economic reforms is commonly known as the LPG known as Liberalization, Privatization and Globalization
ii) These economic reforms had influenced the overall economic growth of the country in a significant manner.

a. Primary sector:
i) Agricultural operations are undertaken.
ii) Allied activities of production of raw materials are concentrated
iii) Examples: Agriculture, cattle farm, fishing, mining, forestry, corn, coal
b. Secondary sector:
i) It is an industrial sector
ii) Commodities are produced by transforming the raw materials.
iii) Examples: Iron and steel industry, cotton textile, jute, sugar, cement, paper, petrochemical, automobile and small scale industries.
c. Tertiary sector:
i) It is known as service sector,
ii) Examples: Service of Government, Scientific research, Transport, communication, trade, postal and telegraph, banking, education, entertainment, healthcare and information technology.

a) National Income:-
National Income is a measure of the total value of goods and services produced by an economy over a period of time, normally a year. It is also called as National Dividend.
b) Gross National Product (GNP) :
Gross National Product is the total value of goods and services produced and income received in a year by domestic residents of a country. It includes profits earned from capital invested abroad.
GNP =C+I+G+(X-M) + NFIA
C = Consumption
G = Government Expenditure
NFIA = Net Factor Income from Abroad
I = Investment
X-M = Export-Import
c) Gross Domestic Product (GDP) :
Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is the total value of output of goods and services produced by the factors of production within the geographical boundaries of the country.
d) Net National Product (NNP) :
Net National Product (NNP) is arrived by making some adjustment with regard to depreciation we arrive the Net National Product (NNP) by deducting the value of depreciation from Gross National Product (NNP = GNP -Depreciation)
e) Net Domestic Product (NDP) :
Net Domestic Product (NDP) is a part of Gross Domestic Product, Net Domestic Product is obtained from the Gross Domestic Product by deducting the quantum of tear and wear expenses (depreciation)
NDP = GDP - Depreciation
f) Per Capita Income (PCI) :
Per capita Income or output per person is an indicator to show the living standard of people in a country. It is obtained by dividing the National Income by the population of a country.
Per capita Income = National Income / Population
g) Personal Income (PI) :
Personal income is the total money income received by individuals and households of a country from all possible sources before direct taxes.
h) Disposable Income (DI) :
Disposable income means actual income which can be spent on consumption by individuals and families, thus, it can be expressed as DPI = PI -Direct Taxes
(From consumption approach DI = Consumption Expenditures + Savings )

Legislative powers
(i) The State Legislature can pass laws on all subjects mentioned in the State List as per the constitution.
(ii) It can also pass laws on concurrent subjects.
(iii) The passing of Bill into law follows the same procedure, as in the Union Parliament
(iv) Every bill passes through three readings.
(v) Then it becomes an Act with the Governor's assent.
Financial Powers
(i) The Legislature controls the finances of the State.
(ii) The Lower House enjoys greater power than the Upper House in money matters.
(iii) Money bills can be introduced only in the Lower House or the Assembly.
(iv) No new tax can be levied without the sanction and permission of the Assembly.
Control over the Executive
(i) The Council of Ministers is responsible to the Assembly.
(ii) The Ministers have to answer questions asked by the members of the Legislature.
(iii) They can be removed from office if the Assembly passes a vote of "no confidence motion" against the Ministry.

The Governor is the head of the state executive and he has enormous  powers . They are
Executive Powers:
(i) He appoints the leader of the majority party in the State Legislative Assembly as the Chief Minister of the State.
(ii) He appoints other members of the Council of Ministers on the recommendation of the Chief Minister.
(iii) He appoints the Chairman and Members of the State Public Service Commission.
(iv) He acts as the chancellor of universities in the state. He also appoints the Vice Chancellors of universities in the state.
Legislative Powers
The Governor is an integral part of the State Legislature.
i) He summons, prorogues the state legislature and dissolves the State Assembly.
ii) He nominates one member to the State Legislature.
iii) He nominates1/6 of the members to the State Legislative Council.
iv) A bill becomes a law only after his assent.
Financial Powers
 i) The Constitution confers on the Governor, the duty to get prepared and introduced to the State Legislature, the annual budget and also the supplementary budgets, if necessary.
ii) Money Bills can be introduced in the Legislative Assembly only with his prior
recommendation.
iii) He can make advances out of the state Contingency Fund to meet any unforeseen expenditure.
iv) He constitutes a Finance Commission after every five years to review the financial position of the panchayats and the municipalities
Judicial Powers
(i) He appoints the Attorney-General of the State.
(ii) He makes appointment, postings and promotions of the District Judges in consultation with the State High Court.
(iii) The Chief Justice of the High Court in the State is appointed by the President in consultation with him.
(iv) He can pardon, commute or reprieve punishment on receipt of appeals for mercy except death sentence.
Emergency Powers
(i) If the Governor is satisfied that the government of the state is not carried on in accordance with the provisions of the Constitution, he may, under Article 356, recommend to the President to impose President Rule in that State.
(ii) As soon as the President Rule is imposed, the administration of the State is carried on by the Governor as the representative of the President.

The Chief Minister is the real executive head of the state administration. He has the following powers and functions.
Relating to the Council of Ministers:
i) The Chief Minister recommends the persons who can be appointed as ministers by Governor.
ii) He allocates the portfolios among the ministers.
iii) He shuffles and reshuffles his ministry.
iv) He presides over the meetings of the Council of Ministers and influences its decisions
v) He guides, directs, controls and coordinates the activities of all the Ministers.
Relating to the Governor:
He advises the Governor in relation to the appointment of the following officials:
i) Advocate General of the State,
ii) State Election Commissioner.
iii) Chairman and Members of the State Public Service Commission
iv) Chairman and Members of the State Planning Commission.
v) Chairman and Members of the State Finance Commission
Relating to State Legislature:
i) The Chief Minister advises the Governor with regard to the summoning and proroguing the sessions of the State Legislature.
ii) He announces the government policies on the floor of the House,
iii) He can introduce the bills in the Legislative Assembly.
iv) He can recommend for the dissolution of the Legislative Assembly to the Governor any time.

Original Jurisdiction:
The cases which are brought directly in-the first instance to the Supreme Court come original under jurisdiction.
These may be
(i) dispute between the Government of India and one or more states
(ii) Dispute between two or more states
(iii) The writs are issued by the Supreme Court for the enforcement of the fundamental rights.
Appellate jurisdiction:
i) The Supreme Court is the final appellate court in the country.
ii) The Supreme Court hears appeals against the decision of High Courts.
iii) Such a case can be brought before the Supreme Court only if the High Court certifies that the case invites a substantial of law as to the interpretation of the Constitution.
Advisory Jurisdiction:
The Constitution confers on the President the power to refer to the Supreme Court any question of law or fact which in his opinion is of public importance.
Miscellaneous jurisdiction:
i) The law declared by Supreme Court is binding on all courts within the territory of India.
ii) The Supreme Court is authorized to make rules for regulating, generally the practice and procedure of the court with the approval of the President.
Judicial Review:
a) The power of the Judiciary to declare a law as unconstitutional is known as Judicial Review'.
b) The Supreme Court of India has Individual Review Power with regard to:
i)  Dispute between the Centre and State.
ii) Protecting the Fundamental Rights.

Article 78 mentioned the duties of the Prime Minister
1. The Prime Minister decides the rank of his Ministers and distributes various departments
2. The Prime Minister decides the dates and the agenda of the meeting of the Cabinet which he presides.
3. The Prime Minister informally consults two or three of his senior colleagues when he does not convene a Cabinet meeting.
4. The Prime Minister supervises the work of various ministers.
5. To converse to the President all decisions of the Council of Ministers connecting tothe government of the affairs of the union and proposals for legislation.
6. The Prime Minister acts as the link between the President and the Council of Ministers.
7. The Prime Minister is the leader of the nation and chief spokeperson of the country.
8. The Prime Minister represents our nation at all international conferences like the Common wealth, Summit of the Non Aligned Nations and SAARC nations.

Executive Powers:
i) Article 77 requires that every executive action of the Union shall be taken in the name of the President.
ii) He appoints the Prime Minister and the other members of the Council of Ministers, distributing portfolios to them on the advice of the Prime Minister.
iii) He is responsible for making a wide variety of appointments.
iv) These include the appointment of Governors of States, the Chief Justice and other Judges of the Supreme Court and high Courts, the Attorney General, the Comptroller and Auditor General, the Chief Election Commissioner and other Election Commissioners the Chairman and other Members of the Union Public Service Commission, Ambassadors and High Commissioners to other countries.
Judicial Powers:
Article 72 confers on the President power to grant pardons, reprieves, respites or remissions of punishment, or to commute the sentence of any person convicted of an offence.

S.No	Fundamental Rights	Directive Principles of State Policy
1.	It was derived from the Constitution of the USA.	It was drawn on the model of the Constitution of Ireland.
2.	Even the Government cannot take away or abridge these rights.	These are more instructions to the Government
3.	These are enforceable by a court of law.	These are not enforceable in any court.
4.	These have legal sanctions.	These have moral and political sanctions.
5.	These rights strengthen political democracy in the country.	The implementation of these principles ensures social and economic democracy.

Right to Constitutional Remedies (Article 32):
A writ is an order or command issued by a court in writing under its seal. It is in the nature of a command or prohibition from performing certain acts that are specified in the orders of the court. Both the Supreme Court and the High Courts are empowered to issue five kinds of writs such as Habeas Corpus, Mandamus, Prohibition, Quo Warranto and Certiorari.
i) Habeas Corpus: Safeguards people from illegal arrests.
ii) Mandamus: It protects the petitioner who requires legal help to get his work done by respective public authorities
iii) Prohibition: It prohibits a subordinate court from acting beyond its jurisdiction.
iv) Certiorari: It quashes an order issued by a subordinate court by overstepping its jurisdiction.
v) Quo Warranto: It prevents usurpation of public office through illegal manner.

i) It is the lengthiest of all the written Constitutions of the world.
ii) It has borrowed most of the provisions from the Constitutions of various countries.
iii) It is partly rigid and partly flexible.
iv) It establishes a federal system of government.
v) It makes India as a secular state.
vi) It provides an independent judiciary.
vii) It introduces Universal Adult Franchise and accords the right to vote to all citizens above 18 years of age without any discrimination

Classification of Roads:
i) National Highways (NH): National Highways form the most important system of road transportation in India.
ii) These highways are connect capitals of states, major Ports, rail junctions, industrial and tourist centres.
iii) The longest National highway is NH - 44, which runs from Srinagar in Jammu Kashmir to Kanniyakumari in Tamil Nadu.
iv)The shortest national highway is NH-47A, which runs, from Ernakulum to Kochi port (Willington Island) covering a distance of 6 km.
State Highways:
The state highways are usually roads that link important cities, towns and district headquarters within the state and connect them with national highways or highways of neighboring states. These roads are administered and financed by state governments.
District Roads:
i) District Roads provide connectivity between the district and taluk headquarters with the state highways and national highways.
ii) District Roads are constructed and maintained by the Public Works Department of the states.
Rural Roads:
i) Rural roads connectivity is a key component of rural development. These roads are vital for providing links in the rural areas. It links the different villages with their neighboring towns.
ii) They are maintained by Village Panchayats.
Border Roads:
i) These are the roads of strategic importance in border areas.
ii) They are constructed and maintained by Border Roads Organization. It was established in 1960 for the development of the roads in the northern and northeastern border areas.
iii) Border Roads Organization has constructed world's highest road joining Chandigarh and Leh in Ladakh.
Golden Quadrilateral Roads:
Golden Quadrilateral 5,846 km long road of 4/6. lanes connects, India's the four metropolitan
cities Delhi, Kolkata, Chennai and Mumbai.
Expressways:
i) These roads are multilane good quality road for high speed traffic.
Eg: Mumbai - Pune road.
International Highways:
These roads link India with neighboring countries for promoting harmonious relationship with them.

Human Development:
Dr. Mahabub-ul-haq defined as "it is a process of enlarging the range of people's choice, increasing their opportunities for education, health care, income, and empowerment. It covers the full range of human choices from a sound physical environment to economic, social and political freedom".
Human Development Indicators:
Population trends, health outcomes, education achievements, national income and composition of resources, work and employment, human security, human and capital mobility, supplementary indicators: perceptions of well being and status of fundamental rights treaties are the human development indicators.
Measuring of Human Development:   
Human Development Index (HDI) is a composite index focusing on three basic dimensions of human development:
(i) Health - Life expectancy at birth.
(ii) Education - Expected years of schooling for school age children and average years of schooling for the adult population.
(iii) Income - Measured by gross national income and per capita income.
Human Development Classification:
(i) HDI classifications are based on HDI fixed cut off points, which are derived from the quartiles of distributions of the component indicators.
(ii) The HDI of less than 0.550 is used for low human development, 0.550 - 0.699 stands for medium human development, 0.700 - 0.799 for high human development and 0.8 or greater for very high human development.

i) The term 'Population Distribution' refers to the way the people are spaced over the earth's surface.
ii) The distribution of population in India is quite uneven because of the vast variation in the availability of resources.
High population:
i) Population is mostly concentrated in the regions of industrial centres and the good agricultural lands.
Low population:
i) On the other hand, the areas such as high mountains, arid lands, thickly forested areas and some remote corners are very thinly populated and some areas are even uninhabited.
Factors affecting population:
i) Terrain, climate, soil, water bodies, mineral resources, industries, transport and urbanization are the major factors which affect the distribution of population in our country.
ii) Uttar Pradesh is the most populous state in India.
iii) Sikkim is the least populous state in India.
iv) Among the union territories Delhi has the largest population.
Density of Population:
i) It is expressed as number of persons per unit area usually per sq km. India is one of the most thickly populated ten countries of the world.
ii) The most densely populated state of India is Bihar and the state with least population density is Arunachal Pradesh.
iii) Among the union territories, Delhi is the densely populated one with 11,297 per sq.km.
iv) Andaman and Nicobar Islands have the lowest density of population.

S.No	Name of Industry	Place	Establishment year	Product
1.	Tata Iron and Steel Company (TISCO)	Jamshedpur, Jharkhand	1907	Pig Iron
2.	Indian Iron and Steel Company (IISCO)	Burnpur, Hirapur, Kulti, West Bengal	1972	Pig Iron & Crude Steel
3.	Visweshwaraya Iron Steel Ltd (VISL)	Bhadravati, Karnataka	1923	Alloy and Sponge Steel
4.	Hindustan Steel Ltd. (HSL) collaborated with Russia	Bhilai, Chattisgarh	1957	Railway Equipments and Ship Building
5.	Hindustan Steel Ltd. (HSL) Collaborated with Germany	Rourkela, Odisha	1965	Hot and cold rolled sheets,galvanized sheets and electrical plates
6.	Hindustan Steel Ltd. (HSL) collaborated with United Kingdom	Durgapur, West Bengal	1959	Alloy Steel, construction materials and railway equipments
7.	Hindustan Steel Ltd. (HSL) collaborated with Russia	Bokara, Jharkhand	1972	Sludge and Slog
8.	Salem Steel Ltd	Salem, Tamil Nadu	1982	Stainless Steel
9.	Vijayanagar Steel plant	Tornagal, Karnataka	1994	Flat Steel and Long Steel
10.	Visakhapatnam Steel Plant (VSP)	Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh	1981	Hot Metal

Concentration of jute industry in hoogly:
(i) Raw material: Hoogly is very near to the areas of jute cultivation.
(ii) Transport: The waters of Hoogly provide inexpensive transport facilities and there is a good network of railways and roadways.
(iii) Water: There is the abundant water supply for processing of jute.
(iv) Labour: Cheap labour is easily available from West Bengal, Odisha, and Bihar.
(v) Kolkata: The developed urban city provides banking, insurance, and port facilities for export.

i) Textile is a broad term which includes cotton, jute, wool, silk and synthetic fibre textiles.
ii) This sector in India is the second largest in the world.
iii) Traditional sectors like handloom, handicrafts and small power loom units are the biggest sources of employment.
iv) Currently, India is the third largest producer of cotton and has the largest loom are and ring spindles in the world.
In India:
i) At present, cotton textile industry is the largest organised modern industry of India.
ii) The highest concentration of textile mills in and around Mumbai, makes it as 'Manchester of India'.
iii) The major cotton textile industries are concentrated in the states of Maharashtra, Gujarat, West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.
In Tamil Nadu:
i) Coimbatore is the most important centre in Tamil Nadu with 200 mills out of its 435 and hence called as "Manchester of South India".
ii) Erode, Tirupur, Karur, Chennai, Tirunelveli, Madurai, Thoothukudi, Salem and Virudhunagar are the other major cotton textile centres in the state.

Intensive farming:
i) Intensive farming is an agricultural intensification and mechanization system. It aims to maximise yields from available land through various means, such as heavy use of pesticides and chemical fertilizers.
ii) Plantation forming is practices in West Bengal, Kerala, Tamilnadu and Karnataka.
Plantation farming:
i) Plantation crops are cultivated for the purpose of exports. These are cultivated in large estates on hilly slopes. Tea, coffee, rubber and spices are the major plantation crops of India.

(i) Multipurpose Project is a scientific management of water resources in our country. Construction of dam across rivers is aimed at many purposes.
(ii) The various purposes of a dam serves are irrigation, hydro power generation, water supply for drinking and industrial purpose, controlling floods, development of fisheries,navigation,etc. Irrigation and hydro-power are the major aims of the projects.
Two import river valley projects (Multipurpose projects):
Bhakra Nangal project:
i) Bhakra Nangal project is constructed across the river Sutlej.
ii) It is the highest gravity dam in India.
iii) The states of Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan are benefited by this project.
Hirakud project:
i) Hirakud project is constructed across the river Mahanadi in Odisha.
ii) This is the longest dam in the world.
iii) The state benefited by this project is Odisha.

Soil Type Characteristics
Distribution
Crops growing
Alluvial Soil Khadar- light coloured, more siliceous.
Bhangar - the older alluvium composed of lime nodules and has clayey composition. It is dark in colour.
Formation - sediments deposited by streams and rivers 
Chemical properties - rich in potash, phosphoric acid, lime and carbon compounds but poor in nitrogen
Nature - Sandy-loam-silt-clay  Ganga and Brahmaputra river valleys; Plains of Uttar Pradesh, Uttaranchal, Punjab, Haryana, West Bengal and Bihar Rice, Wheat, sugarcane and oilseeds Black soils Formation - Derived from basalts of Deccan trap.
Colour - black colour, due to presence of titanium, iron.
Chemical properties - Consist of calcium and magnesium carbonates, high quantities of iron, aluminium, lime and magnesia. Maharashtra and Malwa plateaus, Kathiawar peninsula, Telangana and Rayalaseema region of Andra Pradesh and northern part of Karnataka. Cotton, Millets, Tobacco and Sugarcane Red soils Formation - decomposition of ancient crystalline rocks like granites and gneisses and from rock type
Chemical properties - rich in minerals such as iron and magnesium. Deficient in nitrogen, hummus, phosphoric acid and lime.
Nature - Light texture, porous, friable, presence of limited soluble salts Clay fraction of the red soils generally consists of Kaolinitic minerals. Eastern parts of Deccan plateau, southern states of Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Chota Nagpur plateau (Jharkhand) Wheat, Rice, Cotton, Sugarcane and Pulses Laterite soils Formation - formed in the regions where alternate wet and hot dry conditions prevail. It is formed by
the process of leaching
Chemical properties - Composed mainly of hydrated oxides of iron and aluminium,
Nature - More acidic on higher areas poor in high level, cannot retain moisture while plains they consist of heavy loam and clay and easily retain moisture Assam hills, hill summits of Kerala and Karnataka and Eastern Ghats and region of Odisha Coffee, Rubber, Cashew nut and Tapioca Forest and Mountain Soils Differ from region to region depending on climate.
Formation - due to mechanical weathering caused by snow, rain, temperature variation
Chemical properties - are deficient in potash, phosphorus and lime.
Nature - light, sandy, thin and found with the pieces of rock. Their character changes with the parent rocks. Very rich in humus. slow decomposition makes it acidic Coniferous forest belts of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand and Sikkim. Eastern and the Western Ghats Coffee, tea, rice, maize, potato, barley, tropical fruits and various types of spices

S. No.	Biosphere Reserves	State
1	Achanakmar- Amarkantak	Madhya Pradesh, Chattisgarh
2	Agasthyamalai	Kerala
3	Dibru Saikhowa	Assam
4	Dihang Dibang	Arunalchal Pradesh
5	Great Nicobar	Andaman and Nicobar Islands
6	Gulf of Manner	Tamil nadu
7	Kachchh	Gujarat
8	Kanchenjunga	Sikkim
9	Manas	Assam
10	Nanda Devi	Uttarakhand
11	The Nilgiris	TamilNadu
12	Nokrek	Meghalaya
13	Pachmarhi	Madhya Pradesh
14	Simlipal	Odisha
15	Sundarbans	West Bengal
16	Cold desert	Himachal Pradesh
17	Sesahachalam hills	Andra Pradesh
18	Panna	Madhya Pradesh

On the basis of climate, soil and land form characteristics the natural vegetation of India can be divided into the following types.
Tropical Evergreen Forest:
i) These forest are found in areas with 200 cm or more annual rainfall.
ii) Western Ghats in Maharashtra, Karnataka, Kerala, Andaman Nicobar Islands, Assam, West Bengal, Nagaland, Tripura, Mizoram, Manipur and Meghalaya states have this type of forests.
iii) The most important trees are rubber, mahogany, ebony, rosewood, coconut, bamboo, cinchona, candes, palm, iron wood and cedar.
Tropical Deciduous Forest:
i) These forests are found in the areas with 100 to 200 cm annual rainfall.
ii) These are called 'Monsoon Forests'.
iii) The trees of these forests drop their leaves during the spring and early summer.
iv) These forests are found in Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.
v) Teak and Sal are the most important trees. Sandal wood, rose wood, Kusum, Mahua, Palas haldu, amla, padank, bamboo and tendu are the other trees of economic importance.
vi) These forests also provide fragrant oil, varnish, sandal oil and perfumes.
Tropical Dry Forest:
i) These forests are found in the areas with 50 to 100 cm annual rainfall.
ii) They represent a transitional type of forests.
iii) These are found in east Rajasthan, Haryana, Punjab, Western Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Eastern Maharashtra, Telangana, West Karnataka and East Tamil Nadu.
iv) The important species are mahua, banyan, amaltas, palas, haldu, kikar, bamboo, babool, khair, etc.
Tropical Thorn Forest:
i) These are found in the areas having annual rainfall of less than 50 cm.
ii) They have low humidity and high temperature.
iii) These forests are found in north - west India, which includes west Rajasthan, South west
iv) Haryana, North Gujarat, South  - west Punjab, parts of the Deccan plateau in Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra.
v) Babul, Kikar and Wild palms are common trees found here.
Mountain or Montane Forest:
On the basis of altitude and amount of rainfall, these forests are classified into two.
i) Eastern Himalayan Forest,
ii) Western Himalayan Forest.
Alpine Forest:
i) It occurs all along the Himalayas with above 2400 m altitude.
ii) These are purely having coniferous trees.
iii) Oak, silver fir, pine and juniper are the main trees of these forests.
iv) The eastern parts of Himalayas have large extent of these forests.
Mangrove Forest:
i) These forests occur in and around the deltas, estuaries, creeks, prone to tidal influences and as such are also known as delta or swamp forests.
ii) The delta of the Ganga, Brahmaputra has the largest tidal forest.
iii) These are also known as Sundarbans forest.
iv) The deltas of Mahanadi, Godavari and Krishna rivers are also known for tidal forests.
v) These are also known as tidal forests.

i) The Southwest Monsoon is the most significant feature of the Indian Climate.
ii) The onset of the Southwest Monsoon takes place normally over the southern tip of the country by the first week of June, advances along the Konkan coast in early June and covers the whole country by 15^th July.
iii) The sudden approach of monsoon wind over south India with lightning and thunder is termed as the 'break' or 'burst of monsoon'.
iv) The monsoon wind strikes against the southern tip of Indian landmass and gets divided into two branches.
a) Arabian Sea branch
b) Bay of Bengal branch
The Arabian Sea branch:
i) It gives heavy rainfall to west coast of India as it is located in the windward side of the Western Ghats.
ii) The other part which advances towards north is obstructed by Himalayan Mountains and results in heavy rainfall in north.
iii) As Aravalli Mountain is located parallel to the wind direction, Rajasthan and Western part do not get much rainfall from this branch.
Bay of Bengal branch:
i) The wind from Bay of Bengal branch moves towards northeast India and Myanmar.
ii) This wind is trapped by a chain of mountains namely Garo, Khasi and Jaintia which are mainly responsible for the heaviest rainfall caused at Mawsynram located in Meghalaya.
iii)Later on this wind it travels towards west which results in decrease in rainfall from east to west.
iv) Over all about 75% of Indian rainfall is received from this monsoon.

i) The river Ganga originates as Bhagirathi from the Gangotri Glacier in Uttar Khasi district of Uttarakhand state. 
ii) The length of the river Ganga is about 2,525 km. 
iii) Its major tributaries from the north are Gomti, Gandak, Kosi and Ghaghara. 
iv) Its tributaries from south are Yamuna, Son and Chambal. The largest of its tributaries is the Yamuna. 
v) The Ganga river system is the largest drainage system in India. It extends over an area of 8,61,404 sq km in India. 
vi)The Ganga plain is the most densely populated place in India.  
vii) The river Ganga is known as the River Padma in Bangladesh.  
viii) The combined river of Ganga and Brahmaputra creates the World's largest delta known as Sundarbans in Bangladesh before joining the Bay of Bengal.

i) The rivers in south India are called the Peninsular rivers.
ii) Most of these rivers originate from the Western Ghats.
iii) These are seasonal rivers (non-perennial).
iv) They have a large seasonal fluctuation in volume of water as they are solely fed by rain.
v) These rivers flow in valleys with steep gradients.
vi) Based on the direction of flow, the peninsular rivers are divided into the West flowing and East flowing rivers.
East flowing rivers
a) Mahanadi:
i) The river Mahanadi (851 km) originates near Sihawa in Raipur district of Chattisgarh and flows through Odisha. Seonath, Telen, Sandur, Ib are its major tributaries.
ii) Delta of Mahanadi is one of the largest deltas in India.
b) Godavari
i) Godavari(1,465 km) is the longest of the Peninsular rivers. It is also called Vridha Ganga.
ii) It flows through the states of Telangana and Andhra Pradesh and joins the Bay of Bengal.
iii) Purna, Penganga, Pranitha, Indravathi, Tal & Salami are its major tributaries.
c) Krishna
i) The river Krishna (1,400 km) originates from a spring at a place called Mahabaleshwar in the Western Ghats of Maharashtra. Peddavagu, Musi, Koyna & Tungabhadra are its major tributaries.
ii) It is the second longest Peninsular river.
iii) It flows through Andhra Pradesh and joins the Bay of Bengal, at Hamsaladeevi.
d) Kaveri
i) The river Kaveri (800 km) originates at Tala kaveri, Kodagu hills of Karnataka.
ii) The river Kaveri is called Dhakshin Ganga or Ganga of south.
iii) The Kaveri breaks at Srirangam island with two channels, river Coleroon (Kollidam) and Kaveri.
iv)  At last, it empties in to the Bay of Bengal at Poompuhar.
West flowing rivers
a) Narmada
i) "The river Narmada (1,312 km) rises in Amarkantak Plateau in Madhya Pradesh. Burhner,Halon, Heran, Banjar, Dudhi, Shakkar, Tawa, Barna, Kolar are its tributaries.
ii) It is the largest among the west flowing rivers of Peninsular India.
iii) It forms 27 km long estuary before out falling into the Arabian sea through the Gulf of Cambay.
b) Tapti
 i) It is one of only the three rivers in Peninsular India that run from east to west- the others being the Narmada and the Mahi.
 ii) It outfalls into the Arabian Sea through the Gulf of Cambay.
 iii) Vaki, Gomai, Arunavati, Aner, Nesu, Buray, Panjhra, Bori are its tributariesaki.

Divisions of Northern Mountains are:
1) The Trans Himalayas
2) The Himalayas 
3) Eastern Himalayas or Purvanchal Hills. 
The Trans Himalayas 
i) The Trans Himalayas lies to the north of great Himalayan range. It lies in Jammu and Kashmir and Tibetan plateau. The trans Himalayas are about 40 km in its eastern and western extremities and about 225 km wide in its central part. 
ii) They contain the Tethys sediments. The rocks of this region contains fossils bearing marine sediments which are underlain by Tertiary granites. It has partly metamorphosed sediments and constitutes the core of the Himalayan axis. 
The Himalayas 
i) It constitutes the core part of northern mountains. It is an young fold mountain. It was formed by the movement of Eurasia land mass in the north and Gondwana land mass in the south. 
ii) It consists of many ranges. 
The main divisions of the Himalayas are the 
i) The Greater Himalayas (The Himadri) 
ii) The Lesser Himalayas (The Himachal) 
ii) The Outer Himalayas (The Siwalik's) 
The eastern or Purvanchal Hills 
i) These are the eastern off shoot of Himalayas. It extended in the north eastern states of India. 
ii) Most of these hills are located along the border of India and Myanmar while others are inside India. 
Importance of Himalayas: 
i) Himalayas blocks southwest monsoon winds and causes heavy rainfall to north India. 
ii) It forms a natural barrier to the sub-continent. 
iii) It is the source for many perennial rivers like Indus, Ganges, Brahmaputra, etc. 
iv) The Northern Mountains are described as the paradise of tourists due to its natural beauty. 
v) Many hill stations and pilgrim centers like Amarnath, Kedarnath, Badrinath and Vaishnavi devi temples are situated here. 
vi) It provides raw materials for many forest based industries. 
vii) It prevents cold winds blowing from the central Asia and protects India from severe cold.
viii) Himalayas are renowned for the rich bio-diversity. 

Ramakrishna:
i) Ramakrishna was a simple priest of Dakshineswar Kali temple.
ii) He emphasised the spiritual union with God through ecstatic practices such as singing bhajans.
iii) In his view, all religions contain the universal elements which if practised would lead to salvation.
iv) He said, "Jiva is Siva".
v) He said not mercy, but service for man must be regarded as God.
vi) Ramakrishna's primary achievement was his ability to attract educated youth who were dissatisfied with the rational orientation of religious reform organizations such as the Brahmo Samaj.
vii) After his death, his disciples organised themselves as a religious community and undertook the task of making his life and teaching known in India and abroad.
viii) Vivekananda established the Ramakrishna Mission. It did not restrict itself to religious activities.
ix) But it was involved in social causes such as education, health care and relief in times of calamities.
Swami Vivekananda:
i) Swami Vivekananda was the prime follower of Ramakrishna Paramahamsa.
ii) He was dissatisfied with conventional philosophical positions and practices.
iii) He advocated the practical vedanta of service to humanity.
iv) He attacked the tendency to defend every institution simply because it was connected with religion.
v) He made a call to Indian youth to regenerate Hindu society.
vi) His ideas bread a sense of self confidence among Indians.
vii) He became famous for his address on Hinduism at the World Congress of Religions at Chicago.
viii) Many youths were inspired by Vivekananda.

English education:
i) English education introduced with the objective of producing clerks also produced a new English educated middle class.
ii) This class came under the influence of western ideas and thoughts.
Role of Christianity:
i) Christianity also had its effect on the newly emerging middle class.
ii) The educated middle class began to take a lead in political as well as in reform movements.
Western ideas:
i) The Indian reformers were quite hesitant to subject their old notions and habits to critical scrutiny. Instead they attempted to harmonize both Indian and western cultures.
ii)Their ideas and their actions helped to mitigate social evils such as sati, female infanticide and child marriage and various superstitious beliefs.
Role of scholars and writers:
i) The scholars and writers were an inspiration for the people towards the reform movements.
ii) As the society was having a number of evil practices like sati, child marriage and polygamy there was an urgent need for reform in the society.
iii) These were the circumstances that led to the reform movement in the 19^th century.

The reform movements of nineteenth century in the realm of religion fall under two broad categories.
Reformist Movement
i) Brahmo Samaj
ii) Prarthana Samaj
iii) Aligarh movement.
Revivalist movements
i) Arya Samaj
ii) The Ramakrishna Mission
iii) Deoband movement

S.No	Reformist movements	Revivalist movements
1.	Brahmo Samaj:  (i) Rammohan Roy was one of the earlier reformers, who founded the Brahmo Samaj in 1828. (ii) The Samaj forbade idol worship and condemned meaningless religious rites and ceremonies.	Arya Samaj: (i) Swami Dayanand Saraswati founded the Arya Samaj in 1875. (ii) He rejected the superstitious beliefs in Hinduism. (iii) His cry was "go back to Vedas". (iv) He was against child marriage and supported widow remarriage. (v) He condemned idolatry and Brahmin domination.
2.	Prarthana samaj: (i) Dr. Atma Ram Pandurang was the founder of Prarthana Samaj. (ii)  R.C. Bhandarkar and M.G. Ranade important leaders.  (iii) They worked for inter-caste marriage, inter-caste dining, widow remarriage and improvement of women and depressed classes.	Ramakrishna Mission: (i) Ramakrishna's primary achievement was the ability to attract educated youth who formed religious community. (ii) The Chief Spirit behind this was Vivekananda. (iii) Vivekananda established the Ramakrishna Mission which actively involved in social causes such as education, health care and relief in times of calamities.
3.	Aligarh Movement: (i) It was formed by Sayyid Ahmed Khan. (ii) He exhorted the Muslims to accept western science and to take to English education. (iii) He wished that Muslim shave good bond with the British government.	Deoband Movement: (i) Deoband was a revivalist movement organized by the orthodox Muslim Ulema. (ii) The Two main objectives are propagating the pure teachings of the Quran and Hadith. (iii) The school curricula founded by Muhammad and Rashid shut out English education and Western Culture.

One of the momentous decisions taken in the post-War II era was to integrate the states of Western Europe. In doing so the Europeans wanted,
(i) To prevent further European Wars by ending the rivalry between France and Germany.
(ii) To create a united Europe to resist any threat from Soviet Russia.
(iii) To form a third force in the world to counter-balance the strength of the US and USSR.
(iv) To make full use of the economic and military resources of Europe by organizing them on a continental scale.
Council of Europe:
a) In May 1949 ten countries met in London and signed to form a Council of Europe.
b) The Council of Europe was established with its headquarters at Strasbourg.
European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC):
The European Defence Community (EDC) and the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) were established. The countries belonging to ECSC are France, West Germany, Italy, Belgium, Holland and Luxemburg.
European Economic Community (EEC):
The EEC eliminated barriers to the movement of goods, services, capital and labour.
The Single European Act:
a) The Single European Act came into force on July 1, 1987. It significantly expanded the EEC's scope giving the meetings of the EPC a legal basis. It also called for more intensive coordination of foreign policy among member countries.
b) According to the SEA, each member was given multiple votes, depending on the country's population. Approval of legislation required roughly two-thirds of the votes of all members.
European Union:
a) The Maastricht Treaty was signed on February 7, 1992. It created the European Union.
b) Today the European Union has 28 member states, and functions from its headquarters at Brussels, Belgium.

Arab-Israeli War 1967:
i) Ever since the formation of the Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO), Israel came to be attacked frequently by Palestinian guerrilla groups based in Syria, Lebanon and Jordan
ii) Israeli also resorted to violent reprisals.
iii) In November 1966 an Israeli strike on the village of Al-Samu in the Jordanian West Bank, left 18 dead and 54 wounded
iv) Israeli's air battle with Syria in April 1967 ended in the shooting down six Syrian MIG fighter jets.
v) Nasser mobilised Egyptian forces in the Sinai in support of Syria.
vi) On May 22 he closed the Gulf of Aqaba to Israeli shipping.
vii) King Hussein of Jordan signed a mutual defence pact with Egypt.
viii) Accordingly, it was decided to place Jordanian forces under Egyptian command. Soon, Iraq too joined the alliance. 
Arab-Israeli War 1973:
i) Egypt and Syria under Presidents Anwar Sadat and Hafez al-Assad respectively concluded a secret agreement in January 1973 to bring their armies under one command.
ii) Sadat offered the Israelis a peace deal, if they withdrew from Sinai.
iii) The Israel rejected the offer. Egypt and Syria launched a sudden and surprise attack on the Yom Kippur religious holiday (6 October 1973).
iv) Though Israel suffered heavy casualties it could finally pushed back the Arab forces.
vi) Arabs gained nothing out of this war too.
vii) By way of mediation, the US succeeded in asserting its hegemony over the region and its oil.

a) After the death of Sun Yat - Sen, Chiang Kai Shek became the leader of the Kuomintang,
b) The communist party was under Mao Tse -Tung and Chou En Lai.
c) The communists increased their influence among the workers and peasants and recruited them in the army
Retreat of Communists:
i) The Kuomintang represented the interests of the landlords and capitalists.
ii) Mao understood that the Kuomintang grip on the towns was very strong. A few hundred communists led by Mao retreated into the wild mountains. There they stayed for seven years.
iii) Kuomintang was unable to enter the mountains as Chiang Kai Shek had deal with a lot of problems.
Long March:
i) In 1934, the communist army of about 100,000 set out on a Long March. In 1935 only 20,000 reached northern Sheni after crossing 6,000 miles.
ii) By 1937, Mao had become the leader of over 10 million people of China.
Rise of Mao:
i) However Mao was keen on getting the support of the middle class.
ii) He declared that the communists wanted the rule of the people but not of the dictator.
iii) In 1949, the People's Republic of China emerged under the leadership of Mao Tse-tung.

Administrative Structure:
i) The executive wing of the United Nations is the UN Secretariat.
ii) It is headed by Secretary General. He is elected by the General Assembly on the recommendation of the Security Council.
iii) The Secretary General along with his cabinet and other officials runs the United Nations.
iv) The International Court of Justice, headquartered at the Hague in Holland. It is the judicial wing of the United Nations.
v) The Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC), is responsible for coordinating all economic and social work of the United Nations
Other Important Organs of the UN:
i) Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO).
ii) World Health Organisation (WHO),
iii) UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO)
iv) UNICEF (United Nations Children's Fund)
v) UNDP (United Nations Development Programme)
Activities of the UN:
i) The United Nations has expanded its activities in response to the changing problems facing the world.
ii) Thus, in the 1960s, decolonization was an important issue.
iii) Human rights, the problem of refugees, climate changes, gender equality are all now within the ambit of the activities of the United Nations.
iv) The UN peace keeping force has acted many areas of conflict all over the world. The Indian army has an important part in the peace keeping force. It has served in many parts of the world
v) Poor countries and developing countries are given financial assistance by the UNO.

i) World War II began in 1939 and ended in 1945.
ii) In World War II, had an extensive area of conflict and very high death toll of civilians as well as armed combatants.
New geo-political power Alignment:
i) The world was polarized into two main blocs led by superpowers:
a) United States (Anti communist ideology)
b) Soviet Russia (Communist ideology)
ii) Europe was divided into,
a) Communist
b) Non-Communist
Nuclear Proliferation:
i) The United States and the Soviet Union entered into a race to have more nuclear powered weapons. They built a large stockpile of such weapons.
ii) Defence spending sky-rocketed in many countries.
International Agencies:
i) Many international agencies, in particular the United Nations, the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund came into existence providing a forum for countries large and small.
Social and Economic changes:
i) Social and Economic changes took place in the post-war world.
ii) Colonial powers were forced to give independence to former colonies in a process of decolonization. India was the first to achieve Independence.

Rise of Hitler:
(i) Adolf Hitler was able to exploit the general discontent among the Germans.
ii) He founded the Nationalist Socialist party generally known as 'the Nazis'.
iii) The fundamental platform on which Hitler built his support was the notion of the racial superiority of the German as a pure, Aryan' race.
iv) He had a deep hatred for the Jews.
v) He came to power in 1933 and ruled Germany till 1945.
vi) In direct contravention of the clauses of the Treaty of Versailles he rearmed Germany.
vii) It solved the problem of unemployment in Germany.
viii) Soon Germany and Italy came closer and they formed Rome - Berlin Axis. When Japan joined it, it became Rome - Berlin - Tokyo axis.
ix) Hitler invaded the Rhineland
x) Hitler invaded Austria, Czechoslovakia and Sudetenland.
Fall of Hitler:
i) Initially German army had success. But after the entry of America the axis powers were defeated one after another.
ii) The British Royal Air Force inflicted severe losses on Germany.
iii) In 1941 German army invaded Russia. It was also a failure.
iv) In North Africa the German forces were defeated by General Montgomery.
v) The allied forces under the command of Eisenhower invaded Normandy in France. Slowly, the German army was forced back. Hitler committed suicide in April 1945.

a) There were two main political parties: The Unionist Party which was mainly British and the South Africa Party which had largely Afrikaners (Boers).
b) The first Prime Minister, Botha belonged to the South Africa Party ruled in cooperation with the British.
c) But a militant section of the South Africa Party formed the National Party under Herzog.
d) In 1920 elections, the National Party got 44 seats and the South Africa Party secured 41 seats.
e) At this juncture the British-dominated Unionist Party merged with the South Africa Party.
f) This gave Smuts a majority over the militant Afrikaner controlled National Party.

i) The decolonization process started in India from the beginning of the twentieth century with the launch of the Swadeshi Movement in 1905.
ii) The outbreak of the First World War in 1914 brought about rapid political as well as economic changes.
iii) In 1919, the Government of India Act introduced Dyarchy that provided for elected provincial assemblies as well as for Indian ministers to hold certain portfolios under Transferred Subjects.
iv) The Indian National Congress rejected the arrangements under Dyarchy and decided to boycott the legislature.
Lack of measures to industrialised India:
i) There was no change in the colonial economic policy.
ii) But in the case of indigenous industries, support was only in the form of providing technical advice and education.
iii) Even this policy was soon abandoned as many British enterprises were opposed to this.
Impact of Depression on Indian Agriculture:
i) The value of farm produced, declined by half. But the land rent to be paid by the peasants remained unchanged.
ii) In terms of prices of agricultural commodities, the obligation of the farmers to the state doubled.
iii) The great fall in price prompted Indian nationalists to demand protection for the internal economy.
Government of India Act, 1935:
i) To appease the Indian nationalists The Government of India Act was passed.
ii) Elections were conducted and the Indian National Congress won a resounding in most of the provinces.
iii) The decision of Britain to involve in the Second World War, without consulting the Congress ministries forced the latter to resign from office.

Origin of German Fascism:
a) The origin of German fascism goes back to 1919 when a group of seven men met in Munich and founded the National Socialist German Workers' Party. Nazi party one of them was Adolf Hitler.
b) During World War I, he served in the Bavarian army.
Hitler's attempt to capture power:
a) In 1923 Hitler attempted to capture power in Bavaria.
b) He was arrested and sent to jail. During his time in prison he wrote "Mein Kampf" (My Struggle), an autobiographical book containing his political ideas.
Presidential election:
a) In the Presidential election of 1932, the Communist Party polled about 6,000,000 votes. Alarmed capitalists and property owners tilted towards supporting fascism. Hitler exploited this opportunity to usurp powers.
b) Republican government fell, as the Communists refused to collaborate with the Social Democrats. Industrialists, bankers and Junkers prevailed upon President Von Hindenburg to designate Hitler as Chancellor in 1933.
Hitler's Third Reich:
a) The Nazi state of Hitler, known as Third Reich brought an end to the parliamentary democracy. Germany was converted into a highly centralised state.
b) All political parties except the Nazi party were declared illegal.
c) The army of brown-shirted and jack-booted storm-troopers was expanded.
d) The Hitler Youth was created, and the Labour Front set up.
e) Trade unions were abolished, their leaders were arrested. Strikes were made illegal, wages were fixed by the government.
Hitler became the President:
In August 1934 Hindenburg died and Hitler became both President and Commander in Chief of the armed forces.

i) The Soviet was dominated by Mensheviks and the minority Bolsheviks was timid and undecided. The situation changed with the arrival of Lenin.
ii) When the revolution broke out Lenin was in Switzerland and he wanted continued revolution. His slogan of "All power to the Soviets" soon won over the workers leaders. The people were attracted by the slogan of "Bread, Peace and Land".
Failure of the Provisional Government:
a) The provisional government made two grave mistakes.
b) It postponed a decision on the demand for the redistribution of land.
c) Government decided to continue with the war.
d) Frustrated peasant soldiers deserted their posts and joined those who had restored to land grabbing. This intensified the rising in Petrograd led by Bolsheviks.
e) The government banned Pravda and arrested all Bolsheviks.
f) Trotsky was also arrested
Takeover by the Bolshevik party under Lenin's leadership
a) In October Lenin persuaded the Bolshevik Central Committee to decide on immediate revolution.
b) Trotsky prepared a detailed plan. On 7 November the key government buildings, including the Winter Palace, the Prime Minister's headquarters were seized by armed factory workers and revolutionary troops.
c) On 8 November 1917 a new communist government was in office in Russia. Its head this time was Lenin.
d) The Bolshevik party was renamed the Russian Communist party.
e) Lenin thought that the most important factor for the fall of provisional government was its failure to withdraw from world war.
f) So Lenin immediately withdrew from world war.
g) Lenin concentrated on the formation of new government.

a) Germany was found guilty of starting the War and therefore was to pay reparations for the losses suffered. All Central Powers were directed to pay war indemnity.
b) The German army was to be limited to 1,00,000 men. A small navy was allowed.
c) The union of Austria and Germany was forbidden.
d) All German colonies became mandated territories under the League of Nations.
e) Germany was forced to revoke the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (with Russia) and Bucharest (Bulgaria).
f) Alsace-Lorraine was returned to France.
g) The former Russian territories of Finland, Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania were to be independent.
h) Northern Schleswig was given to Denmark and some small districts to Belgium.
i) Poland was recreated.
j) The Rhineland was to be occupied by the Allies. The area on the east bank of the Rhine was to be demilitarized.

European Alliances and Counter - Alliances:
(i) In 1900 five of the European Great Powers were divided into two armed camps.
a) One camp consisted of the Central Powers namely Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy. They formed the Triple Alliance in 1882.
b) The other camp consisted of France and Russia. Their alliance was formed in 1894 with the promise of mutual help if Germany attacked either of them.
(ii) The Anglo-Japanese Alliance prompted France to seek an alliance with Britain to resolve colonial disputes over Morocco and Egypt.
(iii) In 1904 Entente Cordiale was signed between France and Britain.
(iv) Finally it led to the formation of Triple Entente of Britain, France and Russia.
Violent Forms of Nationalism:
England's Jingoism, France's Chauvinism and Germany's Kultur were militant forms of nationalism, contributing decisively to the outbreak of war.
Aggressive attitude of Germany:
a) Emperor Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany proclaimed Germany would be the leader of the world.
b) Germany's aggressive diplomacy and rapid building of naval bases convinced Britain a German navy could be directed only against her.
Imperial power politics in the Balkans:
a) The Young Turk Revolution of 1908, provided both Austria and Russia with the opportunity to resume their activities in the Balkans.
b) Austria and Russia met and agreed Austria should annex Bosnia and Herzegovina. This aroused intense opposition from Serbia. Germany gave Austria firm support.
c) The enmity between Austria and Serbia led to the outbreak of war in 1914.
The Balkan wars:
a) The Ottoman Empire extended over the Balkans and across Hungary to Poland.
b) The Turks and their subjects of different nationalities in the Balkans indulged in the most frightful massacres and atrocities.
c) The league attacked and defeated Turkish forces in the first Balkan War (1912-13).
d) According to the Treaty of London signed in May 1913 the new state of Albania was created and the other Balkan states divided up Macedonia between them.
e) The division of Macedonia, however, did not satisfy Bulgaria. Bulgaria attacked Serbia and Greece. But Bulgaria was easily defeated. The second Balkan War ended with the signing of the Treaty of Bucharest in August 1913.
Immediate cause:
a) The climax to these events in the Balkans occurred in Sarajevo in Bosnia. On 28 June 1914 the Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary, was assassinated by Princip, a Bosnian Serb.
b) The German army which was planning a war against both France and Russia wanted to use the occasion to its advantage.
c) The German violation of Belgian neutrality forced Britain to enter war.