i) By Birth: All persons born in India on or after January 26,1950 are treated as citizens by birth.
ii) By Descent : A person born outside India on or after January 26,1950 shall be a citizen of India by descent, if his father is a citizen of India at the time of his birth
iii) By Registration : A person can acquire citizenship of India by registration with appropriate authority
iv) By Naturalization: A foreigner can acquire Indian citizenship, on application for naturalization to the Government of India
v) By Incorporation of Territory : In the event of a certain territory being added to the territory of India. The Government of India shall specify the persons of that territory who shall be citizen of India.

The Constitution can be amended in three ways:
(i) Amendment by simple majority of the Parliament
(ii) Amendment by special majority of the Parliament
(iii) Amendment by special majority of the Parliament and the ratification of half of the state legislatures.

The term amendment denotes change, improvement and modification. Usually this term is associated with one or more changes made in the Constitution of a country.

(i) Article 360 authorises the President to declare financial emergency if he is satisfied that the financial stability or credit of India or of any of its parts is in danger.
(ii) In this type of emergency, salaries and allowances of any class of persons serving State or Union, including judges of the Supreme Court and High Court can be reduced by an order of the President.
(iii) This type of emergency has not been declared in India so far.

(i) Under Article 356, the President can declare an emergency in a state if the Governor reports that a situation has arisen under which the government of a State cannot be carried on in accordance with the provisions of the Constitution.
(ii) Maximum duration of the emergency can be three years
(iii) After such an announcement state legislature is suspended and the State is governed by the Governor on behalf of the President.

National Emergency, State Emergency, Financial Emergency

The Administrative power of a State extends only to its own territory and with respect to which it has legislative competence, whereas the Union has exclusive executive power over:
(a) The matters with respect to which Parliament has exclusive power to make laws and
(b) The exercise of its powers conferred by any treaty or agreement

The 42^nd Amendment Act of 1976 transferred five subjects to Concurrent List from State List, that is, education, forests, weights and measures, protection of wild animals and birds, and administration of justice; constitution and organisation of all courts excepts the Supreme Court and the high courts

(i) Directive Principles are not enforceable by the courts. But they are fundamental for the governance of the country.
(ii) The Government is duty-bound to apply these principles while making laws.
(iii) They aim at promoting the Social Welfare of the people.
(iv) Dr. B.R. Ambedkar described these principles as 'novel features' of the Indian Constitution.

(i) The 86^th Amendment Act of 2002 changed the subject -matter of Article 45 and made elementary education a fundamental right under Article 21 A.
(ii) The amended directive requires the State to provide early childhood care and education for all children until they complete the age of six years.

On the basis of their content and direction, directive principles they can be classified into three broad categories, viz, socialistic, Gandhian and liberal-intellectual.

Both the Supreme Court and the High Courts are empowered to issue five kinds of writs of habeas corpus, mandamus, prohibition, quo warranto and certiorari. That is why the Supreme Court is called the "Guardian of the Constitution".

'Magna Carta' is the Charter of Rights issued by King John of England in 1215 under pressure from the barons. This is the first written document relating to the Fundamental Rights of citizens.

The Citizenship Act of 1955 prescribes three ways of losing citizenship whether acquired under the Act or prior to it under the Constitution, viz. renunciation, termination and deprivation
(i) It can be voluntarily renounced by a citizen.
(ii) It can be terminated if a person acquires the citizenship of some other country.
(iii) The central government can deprive a naturalized citizen, if it satisfied that the citizenship was acquired by fraud, false representation or concealment of material facts or indulges in trade with enemy countries or if the person has been sentenced to imprisonment for a period of 2 years

The word 'Citizen' is derived from the Latin term 'Civis' It means resident of a City State.