Three types of emergencies are envisaged in the Constitution. They are
i) National Emergency
ii) state Emergency
iii) Financial Emergency
National Emergency:
(i) Under Article 352, the President can declare emergency if he is satisfied that India's security is threatened due to war, external aggression or armed rebellion, or if there is an imminent danger or threat.
(ii) When a national emergency is declared on the ground of war or external aggression it is known as external emergency.
(iii) On the other hand, when it is declared on the ground of armed rebellion it is known as internal emergency.
(iv) This type of emergency has been declared three times so far in 1962, 1971 and 1975.
State Emergency:
(i) Under Article 356, the President can declare an emergency in a state if the Governor reports that situation has arisen under which the government of a state cannot be carried on in accordance with the provisions of the Constitution.
(ii) The continuance of such an emergency beyond one year is possible only if emergency under Article 352 are in operation or the Election Commission certifies that there are difficulties in holding Assembly elections.
(iii) Maximum duration of the emergency, can be three years.
Financial Emergency:
(i) Article 360 authorizes the President to declare financial emergency if he is satisfied that the financial stability or credit of India or of any of its parts is in danger.
(ii) In this type of emergency salaries and allowances of any class of persons serving State or Union, including judges of the Supreme Court and High Court can be reduced by an order of the President.
(iii) This type of emergency has not been declared in India so far.

The Centre-State relations can be studied under three heads. They are
i) Legislative Relations
ii) Administrative Relations
iii) Financial Relations
Legislative Relations:
(i) The Union Parliament has the power to legislate for the whole or any part of the territory of India, which includes not only the States but also the Union Territories or any other area for the time being included in the territory of India.
(ii) The Seventh Schedule of the Constitution embodies three lists namely the Union List, State List and Concurrent List.
(iii) List consists of 97,66 and 47 items respectively.
(iv) The Parliament enjoys the exclusive power to legislate on subjects enumerated in the Union List.
(v) The State Legislature has exclusive right to legislate on the State List.
(vi) Both Parliament and State Legislatures have power to legislate on subjects contained in the Concurrent List.
Administrative Relations:
(i) The administrative power of a State extends only to its own territory and with respect to which it has legislative competence, whereas the Union has exclusive executive power over.
(a) the matters with respect to which Parliament has exclusive power to make laws.
(b) the exercise of its powers conferred by any treaty or agreement.
Financial Relations:
(i) The Centre and States are empowered by the Constitution to impose various kinds of taxes.
(ii) Certain taxes are imposed and collected by the centre and divided between centre and state based on the recommendation of the Finance Commission appointed by the President under Article 280 of the Constitution.
(iii) Late Prime Minister Indira Gandhi appointed the Sarkaria Commission in 1983 to make an enquiry into the Centre-State relations.

(i) The 42^nd Amendment Act of 1976 added some responsibility of citizens to our Constitution  called the Fundamental Duties.
(ii) Article 51 A declares it to be the duty of every citizen of India.
List of Fundamental duties:
(i) To abide by the Constitution and respect its ideals and institutions, the National Flag and the  National Anthem.
(ii) To cherish and follow the noble ideals which inspired the national struggle for freedom.
(iii) To uphold and protect the sovereignty, unity and integrity of India.
(iv) To defend the country and reader national service when called upon to do so.
(v) To promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood among all the people of India transcending religious, linguistic and regional or sectional diversities, to renounce practices derogatory to the dignity of women.
(vi) To value and preserve the rich heritage of our composite culture.
(vii) To protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers and wildlife and to have compassion for living creatures.
(viii) To develop scientific temper, humanism and the spirit of inquiry and reform.
(ix) To safeguard public property and to abjure violence.
(x) To strive towards excellence in all spheres of individual and collective activity, so that the nation constantly rises to higher levels of endeavor and achievement.
(xi) To provide opportunities for education to his child or ward between the age of six and fourteen years.

(i) The Constitution of India was framed by a Constituent Assembly setup under the Cabinet Mission PIan, 1946.
(ii) The Assembly consisted of 389 members.
(iii) The Assembly held its first meeting on December 9, 1946.
(iv) Dr. Sachchidananda Sinha, the oldest member, was elected as the temporary President of the Assembly.
(v) After the death of Dr. Sahchidananda , Dr. Rajendra Prasad was elected as the President of the Assembly.
(vi) The Assembly met for 11 sessions along with 166 days of meetings. During the discussion 2473 amendments were presented. Some of them were accepted.
(vii) The draft of the Constitution was prepared by the Drafting Committee under the chairmanship of Dr. B.R. Ambedkar. He is recognised as the 'Father of the constitution of India'.
(viii) After the draft had been discussed by the people, the press, provincial assemblies and others, the Constitution was finally adopted on November 26, 1946.
(ix) It contained a Preamble, 22 parts,395 Articles and 8 Schedules.
(x) The drafted Constitution came into force on 26th January, 1950. This day is known as the Republic Day.

Right to Constitutional Remedies (Article 32):
A writ is an order or command issued by a court in writing under its seal. It is in the nature of a command or prohibition from performing certain acts that are specified in the orders of the court Both the Supreme Court and the High Courts are empowered to issue five kinds of writs such as Habeas Corpus, Mandamus, Prohibition, Quo Warranto and Certiorari.
i) Habeas Corpus: Safeguards people from illegal arrests.
ii) Mandamus: It protects the petitioner who requires legal help to get his work done by respective public authorities
iii) Prohibition: It prohibits a subordinate court from acting beyond its jurisdiction.
iv) Quo Warranto: It prevents usurpation of public office through illegal manner.
v) Certiorari: It quashes an order issued by a subordinate court by overstepping its jurisdiction.

List of Fundamental Duties:
Article 51A declares it to be the duty of every citizen of India.
(i) To abide by the constitution and respect its ideals and institutions, the National Flag and the National Anthem.
(ii) To cherish and follow the noble ideals which inspired the national struggle for freedom.
(iii) To uphold and protect the sovereignty, unity and integrity of India.
(iv) To defend the country and render national service when called upon to do so.
(v) To value and preserve the rich heritage of our composite culture.
(vii) To protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers and wildlife, and to have compassion for living creatures.
(viii) To develop scientific temper, humanism and the spirit of inquiry and reform.
(ix) To safeguard public property and to abjure violence

The Citizenship Act of 1955 prescribes five ways of acquiring citizenship, viz, birth, descent, registration, naturalisation and incorporation of territory:
According to the Citizenship Act, 1955, the citizenship could be acquired through any of the following methods.
(i) By Birth : All persons born in India on or after January 26, 1950 are treated as citizens by birth.
(ii) By Descent: A person born outside India on or after January 26, 1950 shall be a citizen of India by descent, if his father is a citizen of India at the time of his birth.
(iii) By Registration : A person can acquire citizenship of India by registration with appropriate authority.
(iv) By Naturalisation : A foreigners can' acquire Indian citizenship, on application for naturalization to the Government of India.
(v) By Incorporation of Territory : In the event of a certain territory being added to the territory of India, the Government of India shall specify the persons of that territory who shall be citizen of India.

i) The term amendment denotes change, improvement and modification
ii) Article 368 of the Constitution in Part XX, deals with the powers of Parliament to amend the Constitution and its procedure.
Procedure of Amendment:
i) An Amendment of this Constitution may be initiated only by the introduction of a Bill for the purpose in either House of Parliament.
ii) When the Bill is passed in each House by a majority of the total membership of that House and by a majority of not less than two thirds of the members of that House present and voting, it shall be presented to the President who shall give his assent to the Bill and thereupon the Constitution shall stand amended in accordance with the terms of the Bill.
iii) The Constitution Amendment can be brought about only by the Parliament.
iv) State Legislatures cannot initiate for any amendment to the Constitution