1. It creates urban sprawl.
2. It causes overcrowding in urban centres.
3. It leads to shortage of houses in urban areas.
4. It leads to the formation of slums (eg. Chennai, Mumbai)
5. It increases traffic congestion in cities.
6. It creates water scarcity in cities,
7. It creates drainage problem.
8. It poses the problem of solid waste management.
9. It increases the rate of crime.

1. The National Highways Authority of India (NHAI) is an autonomous agency of the government of India which was set up in 1988.
2. It is responsible for the management of a network of over1,51,000 km of National Highways in India.
4. It is a nodal agency of the Ministry of Road Transport and Highways. NHAI has signed a memorandum of understanding with the Indian Space Research organization.
5. It is responsible for the development, maintenance, management, and operation of National Highway in India.

a. The growth rate of the population is an important demographic feature.
b. In India, the population growth is rapid. There are several reasons for this.
1. High birth rate and rapid decline in death rate.
2. Increased availability of resources
3. Increased medical facilities
4. Agricultural revolution
5. Religious attitude towards family planning
6. Social taboos towards family planning.

i) The term 'population distribution' refers to the way the people are spaced over the earth's surface.
ii) The distribution of population in India is quite uneven because of the vast variation in the availability of resources.
iii) Population is mostly concentrated in the regions of industrial centres and good agricultural lands.
iv) On the other hand, the areas such as high mountains, arid lands, thickly forested areas and some remote corners are very thinly populated.
v) Some areas are even uninhabited.
Low density of population:
i) Terrain, climate, soil, water bodies, mineral resources, industries, transport and urbanization are the major factors which affect the distribution of population in our country.
ii) Topography, rugged terrain and unfavourable climate conditions are primarily responsible for sparse population in states like Rajasthan and the hill states.
High density of population:
i) On the other hand Uttar Pradesh has high density of population.
ii) Uttar Pradesh is located in the fertile land of the North Indian plains. Fertile soils with good rainfall support an extensive agricultural activity.
iii) Due to flat plains, the development of various infrastructures facilities like transport and communication has also led to the development of various industries in the state.

1. Preferential treatment is given to a male child but female children get neglected in most Indian homes.
2. The infant morality rate in India is high and female infant mortality rate is even higher
3. People go through prenatal sex determination test. In case of a girl, they are ready even to abort the child.
4. Women generally have lower social, political and economic status in Indian society.
5. We find dowry deaths, opposition to widow remarriage and low nutrition level in Indian women.
6. There is lack of social awareness programs among people especially in rural villages.

1. European Union (EU) – a customs union, a single market, and now with a single currency.
2. Mercosur - a customs union between Brazil, Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay, and Venezuela.
3. Pacific Alliance – 2013 – a regional trade agreement between Chile, Colombia, Mexico, and Peru.

Air Travel is preferred in northeastern states. The reasons are
1. Difficult terrain: In the northeast region of India many mountain ranges are present which make it difficult to lay roads or railway tracks.
2. Mighty rivers: In the regions, big rivers with a swift flow are present which makes it difficult to construct roads and railway tracks.
3. Dense forest: The presence of dense forest cover in this area makes it difficult to lay roads or railway tracks.
4. Frequent floods: These areas receive heavy rainfall. So there is a risk of flooding due to the overflow of rivers. This damages the roads and tracks..
5. International border: This area has international frontiers with Myanmar, Bangladesh, and China, So it is safer to travel by air.
6. Due to the above reasons it is more favorable to travel by air.

(i) It is designed as one of the longest highways in the world.
(ii) It is basically a network of highways that connects the 4 m4ior metropolitan cities of the countries in 4 directions.
(iii) Delhi (North) - Chennai (South)
(iv) Kolkata (East) and 4 Mumbai (West), thereby forming a quadrilateral and hence the name Golden quadrilateral.
(iv) Launched in 2001, this was the largest highway and a very ambitious project which was undertaken by the National Highways Development prospect. (NH Dp) and managed by the National Highways Authority of India.
(v) Highlights: It is the largest highways project completed in India and also the 5^th longest high way project in the world.
(vi) The overall length of the golden quadrilateral is 5,846 Lm and it passes through the states of India.
Benefits:
(i) It provides faster transport networks between m4jor cities and parts and connectivity to major agricultural industrial and cultural centers of India.
(ii) It provides smoother movements of goods and people within the country.
(iii) It enables industrial development and jobs creation in smaller towns through access to varied markets.
(iv) Farmers are able to trar5port their produce to major cities and towns for sale and exports and there is less wastage and spoils.

1. Trade is an important phenomenon that decides the economic growth of a country.
2. Trade is an act (or) process of buying, selling, or exchanging goods and services.
3. The primitive method of trade was known as the Barter system where goods were exchanged for goods.
4. Later on, money was introduced as a medium of exchange in buying and selling of goods.
a. Bahnc of trade:
1. The difference in value between imports and exports is called the balance of trade.
2. The situation in which the value of exports exceeds the value of imports is termed as favourable balance of trade and the reverse position is termed an unfavourable balance of trade.
b. Types of trade:
1. Trade can be in general of 2 types: Internal trade and International trade.
(i) Internal trade:
1. The trade carried on within the domestic territory of a country is termed an Internal trade.
2. It is also called Domestic trade or Local trade. Land transport (roadways and railways) - plays a major role in this trade.
3. Local currency is used in internal trade. It helps to promote balanced regional growth in the country.
(ii) Intamdonal trade:
1. Trade carried on between two or more countries is called international trade.
2. It is also called external trade or foreign trade.
3. Export and Import are two components of International trade.
4. Export means goods and services sold for foreign currency.
5. Import means goods and services bought from overseer producers. waterways and Airways play a vital role in this type of trade.
6. Foreign currency is involved in international trade.
7. The trade between any two countries is called Bilateral trade. The trade between more than two countries is called Multilateral Trade.

1. Airways are the quickest, costliest, most modern and comfortable means of transport, Air transport facilitates connectivity on a national, regional and international scale.
2. It has made accessibility easier by connecting difficult terrains like high mountains and sandy deserts.
3. It carries passengers, freight and mail.
4. Air transport plays a key role in times of emergency as well as in the event of natural and man-made calamities like floods, epidemics and wars.
5. Air transport in India made a beginning on 18^th February, 1918 when Henry Piquet carried a mail from Allahabad to Naini.
6. In 1953, eight different airlines which were in operation in the country were nationalised.
7. Domestic Airways fly within the boundaries of a country and International Airways connect major cities of the world.
8. The Indian Airlines and Air India are the two airline services run by the government of India.
9. Indian Air lines provides the domestic air services and Air India provides international air services.
10 Presently, there are 19 designated international airports available in the country.
Pavan-Hans Helicopter Ltd
1. Pavan - Hans Helicopter Ltd has been providing Helicopter support services to the petroleum sector, including ONGC and oil India Ltd.
2. It is a public sector company based in New Delhi.
3. Its operations are based at the Juhu Aerodrome in Vile Parle (West) Mumbai.
4. Pavan-Hans is a Mini Ratna-I category public sector undertaking,
5. It often provides services to various state governments particularly north east India and Inter Island, Ferry services in Andaman & Nicobar Islands, services to Lakshadweep Island etc..
Airports Authority of India (AAI)
1. Airports Authority of India (AAI) was constituted in 1995.
2. It provides security to Indian Airports.
3. AAI under the ministry of Civil Aviation is responsible for creating, upgrading, maintaining and managing civil aviation infrastructure in India.

1. Pipelines provide a very convenient mode of transport to connect oil and natural gas fields, refineries, and markets.
2. In the past, they were used to trade port water to cities and industries. Now solids can also be transported through a pipeline when converted into a slurry.
3. The initial cost of laying pipeline is high but subsequent running cost is minimum.
4. lt can be laid through difficult terrain as well as underwater.
5. It ensures a steady supply of goods and reduces transshipment losses and delays.
6. Oil field in upper Assam to Kanpur, from Salaya in Gujarat to Jalandhar in Punjab and gas pipeline from the Hazira in Gujarat to jagdishpur in Uttar Pradesh.

Electronic Media:
(i) Mass Communication enables millions of people to get the information at the same time.
(ii) It is a great way to provide education as well as entertainment.
(iii) It helps in creating awareness among the people regarding various national policies and programmes.
(iv) The Mass Communication Systems can provide the information to people in two methods.
Electronic Media:
(i) Radio broadcasting in India was started in 1923 by the Radio club of Bombay.
(ii) It was named as All India Radio (AIR) in 1936 and again it was renamed as Akashwani in 1957.
(iii) It broadcasts a variety of programs related to information, education and entertainment.
Print Media:
(i) Newspapers are the most common but powerful means of communication come under print media.
(ii) India has many newspapers which carry information on local, national and international events to the people

Human Development:
Dr. Mahabub-ul-haq defined as "it is a process of enlarging the range of people's choice, increasing their opportunities for education, health care, income, and empowerment. It covers the full range of human choices from a sound physical environment to economic, social and political freedom".
Human Development Indicators:
Population trends, health outcomes, education achievements, national income and composition of resources, work and employment, human security, human and capital mobility, supplementary indicators: perceptions of well being and status of fundamental rights treaties are the human development indicators.
Measuring of Human Development:   
Human Development Index (HDI) is a composite index focusing on three basic dimensions of human development:
(i) Health - Life expectancy at birth.
(ii) Education - Expected years of schooling for school age children and average years of schooling for the adult population.
(iii) Income - Measured by gross national income and per capita income.
Human Development Classification:
(i) HDI classifications are based on HDI fixed cut off points, which are derived from the quartiles of distributions of the component indicators.
(ii) The HDI of less than 0.550 is used for low human development, 0.550 - 0.699 stands for medium human development, 0.700 - 0.799 for high human development and 0.8 or greater for very high human development.

i) The term 'Population Distribution' refers to the way the people are spaced over the earth's surface.
ii) The distribution of population in India is quite uneven because of the vast variation in the availability of resources.
High population:
i) Population is mostly concentrated in the regions of industrial centres and the good agricultural lands.
Low population:
i) On the other hand, the areas such as high mountains, arid lands, thickly forested areas and some remote corners are very thinly populated and some areas are even uninhabited.
Factors affecting population:
i) Terrain, climate, soil, water bodies, mineral resources, industries, transport and urbanization are the major factors which affect the distribution of population in our country.
ii) Uttar Pradesh is the most populous state in India.
iii) Sikkim is the least populous state in India.
iv) Among the union territories Delhi has the largest population.
Density of Population:
i) It is expressed as number of persons per unit area usually per sq km. India is one of the most thickly populated ten countries of the world.
ii) The most densely populated state of India is Bihar and the state with least population density is Arunachal Pradesh.
iii) Among the union territories, Delhi is the densely populated one with 11,297 per sq.km.
iv) Andaman and Nicobar Islands have the lowest density of population.