OPEC:
i) It is a group of oil producing nations (i.e. Iraq, Iran, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia).
ii) Its membership is open to any country that exports crude oil.
OPEC'S mission:
i) To co-ordinate oil policies in its member countries.
ii) Help stabilise oil markets.
iii) To secure fair and stable income to petroleum producers.
iv) An efficient, economic and regular supply of oil to consuming nations.
v) A fair return on capital to those investing in the petroleum industry.
Helps other countries:
i) It helps finance projects with low interests loans.
ii) It provides grants to social and humanitarian projects.
iii) It has an Information centre with over 20,000 volumes including books, reports map and conference proceedings related to petroleum, energy and the oil market.
iv) It is open to the public and for the rescarchers and students.

Reason:
i) To be an alternative to World Bank and IMF to challenge U.S. supremacy.
ii) To provide self-owned and self managed organisations to carryout developmental and economical plan in its member nations.
Objectives:
i) To achieve regional development.
ii) It acts as a bridge between developed and developing countries.
iii) To contribute extensively to the development of humanity.
iv) To establish a more equitable and fair world.
v) Boost intra BRICS trade in their local currencies to increase trade cooperation and cope with the current international financial crisis.
vi) To promote the technological information exchange among the member states.
vii) To enhance inclusive economic growth that will lead to the creation of jobs, fight against poverty and accelerate the economic transformation of members.

Group	countries	Objectives
IBSA	India, Brazil South Africa	To focus on agriculture, energy, trade, culture and defence.
BCIM	Bangladesh,China, India,Myanmar	To respond to threats such as natural disasters and protect business interests.
MGC (Mekong Ganga Cooperation)	India, Cambodia,Laos, PDR Myanmar, Thailand,Vietnam	To create necessary infrastructural facilities in the Ganga-Mekong basin
BBIN	Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Nepal	For energy development.
EAS (East Asia Summit)	10 ASEAN nations + 8 strategic partners including US, China, India, Japan	To promote peace and stability

a) There was an increase in the number of educated non-Brahmins.
b) They raised the issue of caste discrimination and unequal opportunities in government employment and representation in elected bodies, which were dominated by Brahmins.
c) Further, the Congress was also overwhelmingly composed of Brahmins.
Madras Dravidian Association:
a) The non-Brahmins organised themselves into political organisations to protect their interests.
b) In 1912 the Madras Dravidian Association was founded. C. Natesanar played an active role as its secretary.
d) On 20 November 1916 a meeting of about thirty non-Brahmins was held under the leadership of P. Thyagarayar, Dr. T.M. Nair and C. Natesanar in Chennai.
The South Indian Liberal Federation:
The South Indian Liberal Federation (SILF) was founded to promote the interests of the non-Brahmins.
Justice Ministry:
a) The Congress boycotted the elections of 1920.
b) The Justice Party won 63 of 98 elected seats in the Legislative Council.
c) A. Subburayalu of the Justice  Party became the first chief minister.
d) After the 1923 elections, Raja of Panagal of the Justice Party formed the ministry.

a) Several important goods are services left out of the GDP:
i) The GDP includes only the goods and services sold in the market.
ii) The services provided by the parents to their children is very important but it is not included in the GDP because it is not sold in the market.
iii) Likewise clean air, which is vital for a healthy life, has no market value and is left out of the GDP.
b) GDP measures only quantity but not quality :
i) In the 1970s schools and banks did not permit the use of ballpoint pens.
ii) This is because, the ones available in India were of very poor quality.
iii) Since then, not only has there been a substantial increase in the quantity of ballpoint pens produced in India but their quality has also improved a lot.
iv) The improvement in quality of goods is very important but it is not captured by the GDP.
c) GDP does not tell us about the way income is described in the country:
The GDP of a country may be growing rapidly but income may be distributed so unequally that only a small percentage of people may be benefitting from it.
d) The GDP does not tell us about the kind of life people are living:
A high level of per capita real GDP can go hand - in - hand with very low health condition of people, an undemocratic political system, high pollution and high suicide rate.

(i) Himalayas blocks southwest monsoon winds and causes heavy rainfall to north India.
(ii) It forms a natural barrier to the subcontinent.
(iii) It is the source for many perennial rivers like Indus, Ganges, Brahmaputra, etc.
(iv) The Northern Mountains are described as the paradise of tourists due to its natural beauty.
(v) Many hill stations and pilgrim centers like Amarnath, Kedarnath, Badrinath, and Vaishnavi Devi temples are situated here.
(vi) It provides raw material for many forest based industries.
(vii) It prevents the cold winds blowing from the central Asia and protects India from severe cold.
(viii) Himalayas are renowned for the rich biodiversity.

Communist Victory:
(i) With the surrender of the Japanese (1945), both the Kuomintang and the communists sought to occupy the Japanese areas.
(ii) In this race the Kuomintang was successful. The cities and railways soon fell into their hands.
(iii) Even the area around Peking was soon controlled by Chiang Kai-shek's forces, largely because of the military aid given by the USA.
(iv) With the massive support provided by the USA, Kuomintang government controlled the administration, ports and communication system.
(v) But the soldiers, mainly drawn from the peasants, were disillusioned and discontented.
(vi) Mao was keen on obtaining the support of the middle class.
(vii) Mao continued the use of guerrilla tactics but also ordered large-scale military movements.
(viii) Cities fell one by one and Chiang Kai-shek's army began to disintegrate quickly.
(ix) In the summer of 1948, Communist control had been established over most parts of China.

(i) The Covenant of the League was worked out at the Paris Peace Conference and included in each of the treaties that were signed after the First World War.
(ii) It was largely due to the pressure from I President Wilson that this task was: accomplished.
(iii) In drawing up the constitution of this organization, the ideas of Britain and America prevailed.
(iv) The League consisted office bodies the Assembly, the Council, the Secretariat, the Permanent Court of Justice, and the International Labour Organisation.
(v) Each member-country was represented in the Assembly.
(vi) It discussed general policy and any decision taken in the Assembly had to be unanimous.
(vii) The Council was the executive of the League. Britain, France, Italy, Japan, and the United States were originally declared permanent members of the Council.
(viii) Each member had one vote and since all decisions had to be unanimous, even the small nations possessed the right of veto.

Right to Constitutional Remedies (Article 32):
A writ is an order or command issued by a court in writing under its seal. It is in the nature of a command or prohibition from performing certain acts that are specified in the orders of the court. Both the Supreme Court and the High Courts are empowered to issue five kinds of writs such as Habeas Corpus, Mandamus, Prohibition, Quo Warranto and Certiorari.
i) Habeas Corpus: Safeguards people from illegal arrests.
ii) Mandamus: It protects the petitioner who requires legal help to get his work done by respective public authorities
iii) Prohibition: It prohibits a subordinate court from acting beyond its jurisdiction.
iv) Certiorari: It quashes an order issued by a subordinate court by overstepping its jurisdiction.
v) Quo Warranto: It prevents usurpation of public office through illegal manner.

i) The Southwest Monsoon is the most significant feature of the Indian Climate.
ii) The onset of the Southwest Monsoon takes place normally over the southern tip of the country by the first week of June, advances along the Konkan coast in early June and covers the whole country by 15^th July.
iii) The sudden approach of monsoon wind over south India with lightning and thunder is termed as the 'break' or 'burst of monsoon'.
iv) The monsoon wind strikes against the southern tip of Indian landmass and gets divided into two branches.
a) Arabian Sea branch
b) Bay of Bengal branch
The Arabian Sea branch:
i) It gives heavy rainfall to west coast of India as it is located in the windward side of the Western Ghats.
ii) The other part which advances towards north is obstructed by Himalayan Mountains and results in heavy rainfall in north.
iii) As Aravalli Mountain is located parallel to the wind direction, Rajasthan and Western part do not get much rainfall from this branch.
Bay of Bengal branch:
i) The wind from Bay of Bengal branch moves towards northeast India and Myanmar.
ii) This wind is trapped by a chain of mountains namely Garo, Khasi and Jaintia which are mainly responsible for the heaviest rainfall caused at Mawsynram located in Meghalaya.
iii)Later on this wind it travels towards west which results in decrease in rainfall from east to west.
iv) Over all about 75% of Indian rainfall is received from this monsoon.

English education:
i) English education introduced with the objective of producing clerks also produced a new English educated middle class.
ii) This class came under the influence of western ideas and thoughts.
Role of Christianity:
i) Christianity also had its effect on the newly emerging middle class.
ii) The educated middle class began to take a lead in political as well as in reform movements.
Western ideas:
i) The Indian reformers were quite hesitant to subject their old notions and habits to critical scrutiny. Instead they attempted to harmonize both Indian and western cultures.
ii)Their ideas and their actions helped to mitigate social evils such as sati, female infanticide and child marriage and various superstitious beliefs.
Role of scholars and writers:
i) The scholars and writers were an inspiration for the people towards the reform movements.
ii) As the society was having a number of evil practices like sati, child marriage and polygamy there was an urgent need for reform in the society.
iii) These were the circumstances that led to the reform movement in the 19^th century.

Rise of Hitler:
(i) Adolf Hitler was able to exploit the general discontent among the Germans.
ii) He founded the Nationalist Socialist party generally known as 'the Nazis'.
iii) The fundamental platform on which Hitler built his support was the notion of the racial superiority of the German as a pure, Aryan' race.
iv) He had a deep hatred for the Jews.
v) He came to power in 1933 and ruled Germany till 1945.
vi) In direct contravention of the clauses of the Treaty of Versailles he rearmed Germany.
vii) It solved the problem of unemployment in Germany.
viii) Soon Germany and Italy came closer and they formed Rome - Berlin Axis. When Japan joined it, it became Rome - Berlin - Tokyo axis.
ix) Hitler invaded the Rhineland
x) Hitler invaded Austria, Czechoslovakia and Sudetenland.
Fall of Hitler:
i) Initially German army had success. But after the entry of America the axis powers were defeated one after another.
ii) The British Royal Air Force inflicted severe losses on Germany.
iii) In 1941 German army invaded Russia. It was also a failure.
iv) In North Africa the German forces were defeated by General Montgomery.
v) The allied forces under the command of Eisenhower invaded Normandy in France. Slowly, the German army was forced back. Hitler committed suicide in April 1945.

Origin of German Fascism:
a) The origin of German fascism goes back to 1919 when a group of seven men met in Munich and founded the National Socialist German Workers' Party. Nazi party one of them was Adolf Hitler.
b) During World War I, he served in the Bavarian army.
Hitler's attempt to capture power:
a) In 1923 Hitler attempted to capture power in Bavaria.
b) He was arrested and sent to jail. During his time in prison he wrote "Mein Kampf" (My Struggle), an autobiographical book containing his political ideas.
Presidential election:
a) In the Presidential election of 1932, the Communist Party polled about 6,000,000 votes. Alarmed capitalists and property owners tilted towards supporting fascism. Hitler exploited this opportunity to usurp powers.
b) Republican government fell, as the Communists refused to collaborate with the Social Democrats. Industrialists, bankers and Junkers prevailed upon President Von Hindenburg to designate Hitler as Chancellor in 1933.
Hitler's Third Reich:
a) The Nazi state of Hitler, known as Third Reich brought an end to the parliamentary democracy. Germany was converted into a highly centralised state.
b) All political parties except the Nazi party were declared illegal.
c) The army of brown-shirted and jack-booted storm-troopers was expanded.
d) The Hitler Youth was created, and the Labour Front set up.
e) Trade unions were abolished, their leaders were arrested. Strikes were made illegal, wages were fixed by the government.
Hitler became the President:
In August 1934 Hindenburg died and Hitler became both President and Commander in Chief of the armed forces.

Cropping seasons:
i) Sornavari(Chittirai pattam)
ii) Samba (Adipattam)
iii) Navarai (Karthigai pattam)

i) Annie Besant, an Irish lady and leader of the Theosophical Society, Home Rule in 1916 and carried forward the demand for home rule all over India.
ii) She started the news papers New India and Commonweal to carry forward her agenda.
iii) She wrote two books, How India wrought for freedom and India: 'A Nation and a pamphlet on self-government.'

i) The Nawab sent an additional contingent of sepoys to Mahfuzkhan and the reinforced army proceeded to Tirunelveli.
ii) Besides the 1000 sepoys of the Company, Mahfuzkhan received 600 more sent by the Nawab.
iii) He also had the support of cavalry and foot soldiers from the Carnatic.
iv) Before Mafuzkhan could station his troops near Kalakadu, 2000 soldiers from Travancore joined the forces of Puli Thevar.
v) In the battle at Kalakadu Mahfuzkhan's troops were routed.

(i) Tertiary sector is known as service sector.
(ii) Service sector includes Government scientific, research, transport communication, trade, postal and telegraph, banking, healthcare and information technology etc.
(iii) Services sector is the largest sector of India.

Assam, Nagaland, Manipur, Meghalaya Mizoram, Tripura and Arunachal Pradesh  

(i) The 86^th Amendment Act of 2002 changed the subject -matter of Article 45 and made elementary education a fundamental right under Article 21 A.
(ii) The amended directive requires the State to provide early childhood care and education for all children until they complete the age of six years.

Biosphere reserves are protected areas of a land coastal environment where in people are an integral component of the system.

Vaikunda Swamikal criticized the rule of the British and the rule of Rajah of Travancore as the rule of White devils and Black devils respectively.

The two-fold objective of the League of Nations was to avoid war and maintain peace in the world and to promote international cooperation in economic and social affairs. The League intended to act as conciliator and arbitrator and thereby resolve a dispute in its early stages. If wars should break out despite arbitration, the members should apply sanctions to the aggressor-first economic and then military.

 Multi National Corporation (MNC) is a corporate organization which owns or controls production of goods and services in at least one country other than its home country.

a) A bill which covers income and expenditure of the government is called Money Bill.
b) Bills connected with tax policy of the government is also called Money Bill.
c) Lok Sabha can only introduce Money bill and once it is approved by the Lok Sabha, it is passed to Rajya Sabha for its approval.

a) The capitalist countries led by the U.S. were politically designated as the First World.
b) The Communist States led by the Soviet Union came to be known as the Second world.
c) States outside these two were called Third World.

i) On December 1941, Japan attacked American naval installations in Pearl Harbour, Hawaii without any warning
ii) The idea was to cripple America's Pacific fleet so that Japan would not face any opposition
iii) Many battleships and numerous fighter planes were destroyed.
iv) The United States declared war on Japan, with Britain and China also joining in.
v) This brought together both the Asia Pacific and the European war into one common cause.
vi) Most importantly, it brought the United States with its enormous resources into the war as a part of the Allies.

a) In October 1922 in the context of a long ministerial crisis, Mussolini organised the Fascist March on Rome.
b) Impressed by the show of force, the King invited Mussolini to form a government.