OPEC:
i) It is a group of oil producing nations (i.e. Iraq, Iran, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia).
ii) Its membership is open to any country that exports crude oil.
OPEC'S mission:
i) To co-ordinate oil policies in its member countries.
ii) Help stabilise oil markets.
iii) To secure fair and stable income to petroleum producers.
iv) An efficient, economic and regular supply of oil to consuming nations.
v) A fair return on capital to those investing in the petroleum industry.
Helps other countries:
i) It helps finance projects with low interests loans.
ii) It provides grants to social and humanitarian projects.
iii) It has an Information centre with over 20,000 volumes including books, reports map and conference proceedings related to petroleum, energy and the oil market.
iv) It is open to the public and for the rescarchers and students.

Reason:
i) To be an alternative to World Bank and IMF to challenge U.S. supremacy.
ii) To provide self-owned and self managed organisations to carryout developmental and economical plan in its member nations.
Objectives:
i) To achieve regional development.
ii) It acts as a bridge between developed and developing countries.
iii) To contribute extensively to the development of humanity.
iv) To establish a more equitable and fair world.
v) Boost intra BRICS trade in their local currencies to increase trade cooperation and cope with the current international financial crisis.
vi) To promote the technological information exchange among the member states.
vii) To enhance inclusive economic growth that will lead to the creation of jobs, fight against poverty and accelerate the economic transformation of members.

Group	countries	Objectives
IBSA	India, Brazil South Africa	To focus on agriculture, energy, trade, culture and defence.
BCIM	Bangladesh,China, India,Myanmar	To respond to threats such as natural disasters and protect business interests.
MGC (Mekong Ganga Cooperation)	India, Cambodia,Laos, PDR Myanmar, Thailand,Vietnam	To create necessary infrastructural facilities in the Ganga-Mekong basin
BBIN	Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Nepal	For energy development.
EAS (East Asia Summit)	10 ASEAN nations + 8 strategic partners including US, China, India, Japan	To promote peace and stability

a) There was an increase in the number of educated non-Brahmins.
b) They raised the issue of caste discrimination and unequal opportunities in government employment and representation in elected bodies, which were dominated by Brahmins.
c) Further, the Congress was also overwhelmingly composed of Brahmins.
Madras Dravidian Association:
a) The non-Brahmins organised themselves into political organisations to protect their interests.
b) In 1912 the Madras Dravidian Association was founded. C. Natesanar played an active role as its secretary.
d) On 20 November 1916 a meeting of about thirty non-Brahmins was held under the leadership of P. Thyagarayar, Dr. T.M. Nair and C. Natesanar in Chennai.
The South Indian Liberal Federation:
The South Indian Liberal Federation (SILF) was founded to promote the interests of the non-Brahmins.
Justice Ministry:
a) The Congress boycotted the elections of 1920.
b) The Justice Party won 63 of 98 elected seats in the Legislative Council.
c) A. Subburayalu of the Justice  Party became the first chief minister.
d) After the 1923 elections, Raja of Panagal of the Justice Party formed the ministry.

Causes
a) Annexation policy of British India
In the 1840s and 1850s more territories were annexed through two major policies.
The Doctrine of Paramountcy
a) British claimed themselves as paramount, exercising supreme authority.
b) New territories were annexed on the grounds that the native rulers were corrupt and inept.
The Doctrine of Lapse:
a) If a native ruler did not have a male heir to the throne, the territory was to 'lapse' into British India upon the death of the ruler.
b) Satara, Sambalpur, parts of the Punjab, Jhansi and Nagpur were annexed by the British through this policy.
b) Insensitivity to Indian cultural sentiments 
a) In 1806 the sepoys at Vellore mutinied against the new dress code, which prohibited Indians from wearing religious marks on their foreheads and having whiskers on their chin. They had to replace their turbans with a round hat.
b) It was feared that the dress code was part of their effort to convert soldiers to Christianity.
c) Similarly in 1824, the sepoys at Barrackpur near Calcutta refused to go to Burma by sea since crossing the sea meant the loss of their caste.
d) The sepoys were also upset with discrimination in salary and promotion.
e) Indian sepoys were paid much less than their European counterparts.
f) They felt humiliated and racially abused by their seniors.
c) Immediate cause:
a)The precursor to the revolt was the circulation of rumors about the cartridges of the new Enfield rifle.
b)There was strong suspicion that the new cartridges had been greased with cow and pig fat.
c)The cartridge had to be bitten off before loading (pork is forbidden to the Muslims and the cow is sacred to a large section of Hindus).

a) Several important goods are services left out of the GDP:
i) The GDP includes only the goods and services sold in the market.
ii) The services provided by the parents to their children is very important but it is not included in the GDP because it is not sold in the market.
iii) Likewise clean air, which is vital for a healthy life, has no market value and is left out of the GDP.
b) GDP measures only quantity but not quality :
i) In the 1970s schools and banks did not permit the use of ballpoint pens.
ii) This is because, the ones available in India were of very poor quality.
iii) Since then, not only has there been a substantial increase in the quantity of ballpoint pens produced in India but their quality has also improved a lot.
iv) The improvement in quality of goods is very important but it is not captured by the GDP.
c) GDP does not tell us about the way income is described in the country:
The GDP of a country may be growing rapidly but income may be distributed so unequally that only a small percentage of people may be benefitting from it.
d) The GDP does not tell us about the kind of life people are living:
A high level of per capita real GDP can go hand - in - hand with very low health condition of people, an undemocratic political system, high pollution and high suicide rate.

(i) The plateau region lies to the south of the Great Northern Plains. This is the largest physiographic division of our country.
(ii) It covers an area of about 16 lakh sq.km (about half of the total area of the country). It is an old rocky plateau region.
(iii) Aravalli hills mark the north-western boundary of the plateau region.
(iv) Its northern and north-eastern boundaries are marked by the Bundelkhand upland, Kaimur and Rajmahal hills.
(v) The Western Ghats and the Eastern Ghats mark the western and eastern boundaries respectively.
(vi) The peak of Anaimudi is the highest point in the plateau. Its height is 2,695 m and is located in Anaimalai.
(vii) River Narmada divides the plateau region of India broadly into 2 parts.
(viii) The region lying to the north of the Narmada is called the Central Highlands and the region lying to the south of Narmada is called the Deccan Plateau.
(ix) All the major rivers (Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri, etc.) lying to the south of the Vindhyas flow eastwards and fall into the Bay of Bengal.
(x) Narmada and Tapti are the two rivers situated to the south of the Vindhyas flow westward.
(xi) Their movement towards west is due to the presence of a rift valley in the region.

Communist Victory:
(i) With the surrender of the Japanese (1945), both the Kuomintang and the communists sought to occupy the Japanese areas.
(ii) In this race the Kuomintang was successful. The cities and railways soon fell into their hands.
(iii) Even the area around Peking was soon controlled by Chiang Kai-shek's forces, largely because of the military aid given by the USA.
(iv) With the massive support provided by the USA, Kuomintang government controlled the administration, ports and communication system.
(v) But the soldiers, mainly drawn from the peasants, were disillusioned and discontented.
(vi) Mao was keen on obtaining the support of the middle class.
(vii) Mao continued the use of guerrilla tactics but also ordered large-scale military movements.
(viii) Cities fell one by one and Chiang Kai-shek's army began to disintegrate quickly.
(ix) In the summer of 1948, Communist control had been established over most parts of China.

(i) Even on 23 February 1917, when the socialists celebrated International Working Women's Day on that day, the Tsar seemed unchallengeable. But he had to abdicate on the morning of 2 March.
(ii) Though none called for strikes fearing that the time was not ripe for militant action, the bread shortages among women textile workers, many with husbands in the army, forced them to go on strike anyway and march through the factory areas of Petrograd, the capital of the Russian Empire.
(iii) Masses of women workers in a militant frame of mind demanding "Bread for workers" waved their arms towards factory workers and shouted, "Come out!" "Stop work!"
(iv) The city's 400,000 workers joined the movement the next day (24 February).

i) It is the lengthiest of all the written Constitutions of the world.
ii) It has borrowed most of the provisions from the Constitutions of various countries.
iii) It is partly rigid and partly flexible.
iv) It establishes a federal system of government.
v) It makes India as a secular state.
vi) It provides an independent judiciary.
vii) It introduces Universal Adult Franchise and accords the right to vote to all citizens above 18 years of age without any discrimination

S. No.	Biosphere Reserves	State
1	Achanakmar- Amarkantak	Madhya Pradesh, Chattisgarh
2	Agasthyamalai	Kerala
3	Dibru Saikhowa	Assam
4	Dihang Dibang	Arunalchal Pradesh
5	Great Nicobar	Andaman and Nicobar Islands
6	Gulf of Manner	Tamil nadu
7	Kachchh	Gujarat
8	Kanchenjunga	Sikkim
9	Manas	Assam
10	Nanda Devi	Uttarakhand
11	The Nilgiris	TamilNadu
12	Nokrek	Meghalaya
13	Pachmarhi	Madhya Pradesh
14	Simlipal	Odisha
15	Sundarbans	West Bengal
16	Cold desert	Himachal Pradesh
17	Sesahachalam hills	Andra Pradesh
18	Panna	Madhya Pradesh

The reform movements of nineteenth century in the realm of religion fall under two broad categories.
Reformist Movement
i) Brahmo Samaj
ii) Prarthana Samaj
iii) Aligarh movement.
Revivalist movements
i) Arya Samaj
ii) The Ramakrishna Mission
iii) Deoband movement

S.No	Reformist movements	Revivalist movements
1.	Brahmo Samaj:  (i) Rammohan Roy was one of the earlier reformers, who founded the Brahmo Samaj in 1828. (ii) The Samaj forbade idol worship and condemned meaningless religious rites and ceremonies.	Arya Samaj: (i) Swami Dayanand Saraswati founded the Arya Samaj in 1875. (ii) He rejected the superstitious beliefs in Hinduism. (iii) His cry was "go back to Vedas". (iv) He was against child marriage and supported widow remarriage. (v) He condemned idolatry and Brahmin domination.
2.	Prarthana samaj: (i) Dr. Atma Ram Pandurang was the founder of Prarthana Samaj. (ii)  R.C. Bhandarkar and M.G. Ranade important leaders.  (iii) They worked for inter-caste marriage, inter-caste dining, widow remarriage and improvement of women and depressed classes.	Ramakrishna Mission: (i) Ramakrishna's primary achievement was the ability to attract educated youth who formed religious community. (ii) The Chief Spirit behind this was Vivekananda. (iii) Vivekananda established the Ramakrishna Mission which actively involved in social causes such as education, health care and relief in times of calamities.
3.	Aligarh Movement: (i) It was formed by Sayyid Ahmed Khan. (ii) He exhorted the Muslims to accept western science and to take to English education. (iii) He wished that Muslim shave good bond with the British government.	Deoband Movement: (i) Deoband was a revivalist movement organized by the orthodox Muslim Ulema. (ii) The Two main objectives are propagating the pure teachings of the Quran and Hadith. (iii) The school curricula founded by Muhammad and Rashid shut out English education and Western Culture.

Rise of Hitler:
(i) Adolf Hitler was able to exploit the general discontent among the Germans.
ii) He founded the Nationalist Socialist party generally known as 'the Nazis'.
iii) The fundamental platform on which Hitler built his support was the notion of the racial superiority of the German as a pure, Aryan' race.
iv) He had a deep hatred for the Jews.
v) He came to power in 1933 and ruled Germany till 1945.
vi) In direct contravention of the clauses of the Treaty of Versailles he rearmed Germany.
vii) It solved the problem of unemployment in Germany.
viii) Soon Germany and Italy came closer and they formed Rome - Berlin Axis. When Japan joined it, it became Rome - Berlin - Tokyo axis.
ix) Hitler invaded the Rhineland
x) Hitler invaded Austria, Czechoslovakia and Sudetenland.
Fall of Hitler:
i) Initially German army had success. But after the entry of America the axis powers were defeated one after another.
ii) The British Royal Air Force inflicted severe losses on Germany.
iii) In 1941 German army invaded Russia. It was also a failure.
iv) In North Africa the German forces were defeated by General Montgomery.
v) The allied forces under the command of Eisenhower invaded Normandy in France. Slowly, the German army was forced back. Hitler committed suicide in April 1945.

Origin of German Fascism:
a) The origin of German fascism goes back to 1919 when a group of seven men met in Munich and founded the National Socialist German Workers' Party. Nazi party one of them was Adolf Hitler.
b) During World War I, he served in the Bavarian army.
Hitler's attempt to capture power:
a) In 1923 Hitler attempted to capture power in Bavaria.
b) He was arrested and sent to jail. During his time in prison he wrote "Mein Kampf" (My Struggle), an autobiographical book containing his political ideas.
Presidential election:
a) In the Presidential election of 1932, the Communist Party polled about 6,000,000 votes. Alarmed capitalists and property owners tilted towards supporting fascism. Hitler exploited this opportunity to usurp powers.
b) Republican government fell, as the Communists refused to collaborate with the Social Democrats. Industrialists, bankers and Junkers prevailed upon President Von Hindenburg to designate Hitler as Chancellor in 1933.
Hitler's Third Reich:
a) The Nazi state of Hitler, known as Third Reich brought an end to the parliamentary democracy. Germany was converted into a highly centralised state.
b) All political parties except the Nazi party were declared illegal.
c) The army of brown-shirted and jack-booted storm-troopers was expanded.
d) The Hitler Youth was created, and the Labour Front set up.
e) Trade unions were abolished, their leaders were arrested. Strikes were made illegal, wages were fixed by the government.
Hitler became the President:
In August 1934 Hindenburg died and Hitler became both President and Commander in Chief of the armed forces.

Cropping seasons:
i) Sornavari(Chittirai pattam)
ii) Samba (Adipattam)
iii) Navarai (Karthigai pattam)

i) E.V.R. campaigned vigorously for the promotion and sale of Khadi.
ii) He was against the consumption of liquor.
iii) He played a key role in the satyagraha for temple entry in Vaikom.
iv) In those days the depressed classes were not permitted to enter temples and to walk on the streets around the temple in Vaikom or come within certain distance of the upper castes. He fought against this social evil.
v) In June 1925, the ban on the roads around the temple was lifted. The ban on temple entry was also lifted.
vi) For his contribution against temple entry he was hailed as ‘ Vaikom Hero ’.

i) The eastern Palayams were Sattur, Nagalapuram, Ettayapuram and Panchalamkurichi.
ii) The western Palayams were Uthumalai, Thalavankottai, Naduvakurichi, Singampatti and Seithur.

(i) Industry sector is secondary sectors.
(ii) For example : Manufacturing, Electricity, Gas, Water supply, Automobile, Iron and Steel other utility services and construction etc..

(i) The term of the Chief Minister is not fixed.
(ii) He may remain as the Chief Minister as long as he enjoys the support of the majority of the members of the Legislative Assembly.
(iii) He has to resign when he loses confidence of the majority in the assembly.
(iv) It is understood that normally he completes 5 years term like other members in the Legislative Assembly.

The Citizenship Act of 1955 prescribes three ways of losing citizenship whether acquired under the Act or prior to it under the Constitution, viz. renunciation, termination and deprivation
(i) It can be voluntarily renounced by a citizen.
(ii) It can be terminated if a person acquires the citizenship of some other country.
(iii) The central government can deprive a naturalized citizen, if it satisfied that the citizenship was acquired by fraud, false representation or concealment of material facts or indulges in trade with enemy countries or if the person has been sentenced to imprisonment for a period of 2 years

Natural vegetation can be classified as tropical evergreen forests, tropical deciduous forests, tropical dry forests, desert and semi desert vegetation, mountain forests, Alpine forests, Tidal forests, coastal forests, and Riverine forest.

(i) The Namdhari Movement, founded by Baba Ram Singh, was another socio-religious movement among the Sikhs.
(ii) The Namdharis insisted on wearing the symbols of Sikhism except the kirpan (sword).
(iii) Instead, Baba Ram Singh wanted his' followers to carry a lathi. It considered both men and women equal and accepted widow remarriage.
(iv) It prohibited the dowry system and child marriage.

The aim of capitalistic industry was to produce more and more. The surplus wealth thus produced was used to build more factories, railways, steamships or other such undertakings.

 Multi National Corporation (MNC) is a corporate organization which owns or controls production of goods and services in at least one country other than its home country.

i) To give advice to the Government of India upon such legal matters which are referred to him by the president. 
ii) Attorney General of India has the right of audience in all courts in the territory of India.
iii) Further he has the right to speak and to take part in the proceedings of both Houses of the Parliament or their joint sitting.
iv) He enjoys all the privileges and immunities that are available to a member of Parliament.

i) The US Conceived the Marshall Plan to bring the countries in the Western Europe under its influence.
ii) The plan sought to help the countries of Europe with American dollars to facilitate their early recovery from the destruction caused by the Second World War.

There are many clauses but the three main clauses are:
i) Germany was forced to give up territories to the west, north and east of the German border.
ii) Germany had to disarm and was allowed to retain only a very restricted armed force
iii)  As reparations for the war, Germany was expected to pay for the military and civilian cost of the war to the Allied nations.

It is the term used to describe the policy of the USA in maintaining and dominating over distant lands through economic aid.