India is the second most populous country in the world next only to china. India covers only 2.4 percent of the land area of the world, but is the home of about 17.5 percent of the world's population.

The total number of people residing in a country at a specified period of time is called the 'Population' of that country

Methods of Conservation and Management of Soil
(i) Contour method
(ii) Rotation of crops
(iii) Contour bunding
(iv) Strip cropping

 i) Mica is used in making insulating properties.
 ii) It is used in electrical goods.
 iii) lt is used in making of lubricants, medicines, paints and varnishes.

(i) Southern Indian trade guilds were formed by merchants in order to organize and expand their trading activities.
(ii) Trade guilds become channels through which Indian culture was exported to other lands.

(i) Industry sector is secondary sectors.
(ii) For example : Manufacturing, Electricity, Gas, Water supply, Automobile, Iron and Steel other utility services and construction etc..

The four major components of GDP are,
(i) C - Consumption expenditure
(ii) I - Investment expenditure
(iii) G - Government expenditure
(iv) X-M - Exports - Imports
(v) GDP = C + I + G + X-M

Habeas Corpus, Mandamus, Prohibition, Quo Warranto, Certiorari

Assam, Nagaland, Manipur, Meghalaya Mizoram, Tripura and Arunachal Pradesh  

(i) 1/3 of the members are elected by local bodies.
(ii) 1/112 of the members are elected by Graduates of the universities in the State.
(iii) 1/12 of the members are elected by Graduate teachers
(iv) 1/3 of the members are elected by the members of the Legislative Assembly
(v) 1/6 is nominated by the Governor who is eminent in the field of literary excellence art, social services or Co-operation.

The President of India resides at Rashtrapati Bhavan in New Delhi. The residence and the office of the President are located in the same building. However he has two other office cum residences where he conducts office at least once a year. They are 'The Retreat Building' at Shimla and the 'Rashtrapati Nilayam' at Hyderabad.

(i) Generally the Lok Sabha enjoys a term of five years from the date of its first session It can be dissolved by the President before the expiry of its term on the advice of the Prime Minister.
(ii) The President can prorogue or dissolve the Lok Sabha either on the advice of the Prime Minister or on being convinced that no party or no alliance of parties enjoys necessary majority support in the House.

Both the Supreme Court and the High Courts are empowered to issue five kinds of writs of habeas corpus, mandamus, prohibition, quo warranto and certiorari. That is why the Supreme Court is called the "Guardian of the Constitution".

'Magna Carta' is the Charter of Rights issued by King John of England in 1215 under pressure from the barons. This is the first written document relating to the Fundamental Rights of citizens.

The word 'Citizen' is derived from the Latin term 'Civis' It means resident of a City State.

(i) These forests are found along the rivers on Khadar areas.
(ii) These are known for Tamarisk and Tamarind trees.
(iii) The rivers of Great Plains are more prominent for this type of natural vegetation.

(i) These are the eastern off-shoot of Himalayas. It extended in the north-eastern states of India. Most of these hills are located along the border of India and Myanmar while others are inside India.
(ii) Dafla Hills, Abor Hills, Mishmi Hills, Patkai Bum Hills, Naga Hills, Manipur Hills, Mizo Hills, Tripura Hills, Mikir Hills, Garo Hills, and Khasi Hills are the hills which are collectively known as purvanchal hills.

(i) Ramalinga bore witness to hunger and poverty in the country: "I saw poor people, emaciated with hunger and terribly weary, going to every house, yet their hunger was not removed, and my heart suffered intensely.
(ii) Those who suffer with relentless disease, I saw them in front of me and my heart trembled.
(iii) I saw those people, poor and of unmatched honor, their hearts weary, and I grew weak:'

(i) After the suppression of great revolt of 1857 Indian Muslims looked to Western culture with suspicion.
(ii) The community feared that Western education, Western culture, and Western ideas would endanger their religion.
(iii) Therefore only a small section of Muslims accepted the new avenues for modern education.
(iv) Consequently, Indian Muslims as a community lagged behind in comparison to the Hindu elite of various parts of India.

(i) Yeltsin was first an ally of Gorbachev as Mayor of Moscow, Yeltsin won great popularity as a champion of political and economic freedom. (ii) Yeltsin was returned to power with overwhelming support of a Moscow constituency in 1989.
(iii) President Yeltsin advocated greater autonomy of the Russian Republic, with executive presidential system that would allow him to govern independently of parliament.

(i) Glasnost ('openness') was a policy of ideologically openness introduced by Mikhail Gorbachev along with Perestroika in the 1980s.
(ii) Under Leonid Brezhnev, the ideological and cultural climate was stifling with dissent being crushed ruthlessly.
(iii) Under Glasnost there was more openness, writers who had been censored earlier were rehabilitated, and there was space for criticism of politics and government.

(i) In December 1954, a conference of eight European nations namely, Albania, Bulgaria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Poland, Romania, and Russia took place in Moscow.
(ii) They concluded the treaty on May 14, 1955. This is known as the Warsaw Pact.

The movie, Fiddler on the Roof, is about the anti- Jewish pogrom in nineteenth century Russia when an entire village of Jews is forced to move out by an order of the Tsar.

(i) Britain depended on large scale imports of food, raw materials and industrial goods by sea from its Empire and the US.
(ii) To attack this, Germany developed a fleet of submarines which caused havoc, especially in the Atlantic Ocean area, by sinking a large number of civilian ships carrying supplies to Britain.

(i) Along with the repressive measures, Hitler's government followed a policy of repressing Jewish people.
(ii) The Jews were removed from government positions, excluded from the universities and deprived of citizenship.
(iii) Jewish businesses were closed down, and their establishments were attacked.
(iv) Later they were turned into extermination camps where industrial means of murder such as gas chambers were used to kill Jews.

The defensive measures adopted by various nations to safeguard its economic interests led to an unprecedented decline in world economic activity. As its effect was deep and prolonged economists and historians call it the Great Depression.

Russia, France, Britain, Italy, the United States, Belgium, Serbia, Romania and Greece are the nine states that opposed the central powers.

After 1905 Japan took control of Korean domestic and foreign policy. The assassination of a prominent Japanese diplomat provided the excuse in 1910 for Japan's annexation of Korea.

 Multi National Corporation (MNC) is a corporate organization which owns or controls production of goods and services in at least one country other than its home country.

a) In the value added approach the value added by each intermediate goods is summed to estimate the value of the final goods.
b) The sum of the value added by all the intermediate goods used in production gives us the total value of the final goods produced in the economy.
Example:
To measure the market value of a cup of tea is, to add the value of each intermediate goods used to produce it such as tea powder, milk and sugar.

a) The High Courts of the Presidency towns (Bombay, Calcutta and Madras) have both original and appellate jurisdictions, while other High Courts have mostly appellate jurisdiction.
b) Only in matters of admiralty, probate, matrimonial and contempt of Court, they have original jurisdiction
c) The Presidency High Courts have original jurisdiction in which the amount involved is more than 2000 and in criminal cases which are committed to them by the Presidency Magistrates.

a) The Governor is the Constitutional head of the State Executive.
b) The executive powers of the state are vested in the Governor.
c) Every Bill passed by the State Legislature will become law only after his signature.
d) He can dismiss the Council of Ministers when it is unable to prove the confidence of the Legislative Assembly.
e) He may recommend to the president to impose the President's rule in the state.

The Ministers are classified under three ranks.
i) Cabinet Ministers
ii) Ministers of state
iii) Deputy Ministers

i) The centre-state relations can be studied under three heads
ii) They are,     
a) Legislative relations
b) Administrative relations
c) Financial relations.

i) Right to Equality
ii) Right to Freedom
iii) Right against Exploitation
iv) Right to Religion
v) Cultural & Educational Rights
vi) Right to Constitutional Remedies

National Waterway 1: Ganga - Bhagirathi - Hooghly river system
National Waterway 2: Brahmaputra river between Dhubri - Sadiya
National Waterway 3: Kollam - Kottapuram in the state of Kerala.

a) The major jute producing areas are in West Bengal and is concentrated along the Hooghly river.
b) Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Assam, Chhattisgarh and Odisha are the other Jute goods producing areas.

1. Kharif season - June to September
2. Rabi season - October to March
3. Zaid season - April to June

The delta of the Ganga - Brahmaputra
The deltas of Mahanadi, Godavari and Krishna rivers.

i) This physiographic division is the largest part of the plateau region of India. 
ii) The shape of this plateau is roughly triangular. 
iii) One of the sides of this triangle is marked by the line joining Kanyakumari with Raajmahal Hills and this line passes through the Eastern Ghats. 
iv) The second arm is marked by the Sapura Range, Mahadeo Hills, Maikal Range and the Raajmahal Hills. 
v) The third arm is marked by the Western Ghats. The area of this Plateau is about 7 lakh square km and the height ranges from 500 to 1000 m above sea level. 

S.No	Reformist movement	Revival movement
(1)	A reform movement is a kind of social movement that aims to make gradual change or change in certain aspects of society, rather or fundamental changes.	Revival movements refer to spiritual movements which originate from a large folk revival.
(2)	A reform movement is distinguished from more radical social movements such as revolutionary movements.	Emphasising a personal relationship with God is typical of the movements.
(3)	Some of the famous Reformist movements are Brahmo Samji. The Prarthana Samaj and the Aligarh movement.	A few famous Revivalist movements are the Arya Samaj, the Ramakrishna Mission, and the Deoband movement.

i) In, 1942 the Report Commonly known as the Beveridge Report was published in the U.K.
ii) It proposed a series of measures which the Government should adopt to provide the Citizens.
iii) The major impediments are adequate income, health care, education, housing and employment to overcome poverty and discase.

(i) Smuts believed that a coalition government was required to solve the country's economic problems.
(ii) Therefore the South Africa party and the National party united in 1934 to form the United South Africa's National Party or United Party for short.
(iii) In spite of misunderstandings and disagreements, the smuts - Herzog alliance lasted until 1939.

The three militant forms of nationalism in Europe:
i) England's jingoism
ii) France's chauvinism
iii) Germany's Kultur.

Indian agriculture and Indian farmers are plagued by several problems; some of them are natural and some others are manmade.
(i) Small and fragmented land-holdings: The problem of small and fragmented holdings is more serious in densely populated and intensively cultivated states in India.
(ii) High Costs of Inputs: Seed is a critical and basic input for attaining higher crop yields and sustained growth in agricultural production.
(iii) Infertile Soil: Indian soils have been used for growing crops over thousands of years without caring much for replenishing. This has led to depletion and exhaustion of soils resulting low productivity.
(iv) Lack of Irrigation: Only one- third of the cropped area falls under irrigated area. To make agriculture reliable, irrigation facility has to be developed.
(v) Soil erosion:  Large tracts of fertile land suffer from soil erosion by wind and water. Such kind of areas must be properly treated and restored to its original fertility.
(vi) Agricultural marketing: In rural India, agricultural marketing continues in bad shape. Due to the absence of sound marketing facility, the farmers have to depend on local traders and middlemen for the disposal of their farm products which is sold at a low price.
(vii) Inadequate storage facilities: Storage facilities in the rural areas are either totally absent or grossly inadequate. Under such conditions, the farmers are compelled to sell their products immediately after the harvest irrespective of the condition of market.

Electronic Media:
(i) Mass Communication enables millions of people to get the information at the same time.
(ii) It is a great way to provide education as well as entertainment.
(iii) It helps in creating awareness among the people regarding various national policies and programmes.
(iv) The Mass Communication Systems can provide the information to people in two methods.
Electronic Media:
(i) Radio broadcasting in India was started in 1923 by the Radio club of Bombay.
(ii) It was named as All India Radio (AIR) in 1936 and again it was renamed as Akashwani in 1957.
(iii) It broadcasts a variety of programs related to information, education and entertainment.
Print Media:
(i) Newspapers are the most common but powerful means of communication come under print media.
(ii) India has many newspapers which carry information on local, national and international events to the people

(i) Paper Industry has emerged as a diversified and specialized industry in India that produces numerous types of papers that comes in various use such as sheet paper, paper boxes, tissues, paper bags, stationery, envelopes and printed paper products such as books, periodicals, and newspapers.
(Ii) In India the Soft wood is the principal raw ; material used for making paper especially newsprint and high class printing papers.
(iii) Paper is the pre-requisite for education and literacy and its use is an index of advancement in these two fields as well as the overall well being of the society.
(iv) The first successful effort was made in 1867 with the setting up of the Royal Bengal paper mills at Ballygunge near Kolkata.
(v) The raw materials for paper industry includes wood pulp, bamboo, salai and sabai grasses, waste paper and bagasse.
(vi) West Bengal is the largest producer of paper in the country followed by Madhya Pradesh, Odisha and Tamil nadu states.

(i) Sony Corporation
(ii) Hew left Packard (HP)
(iii) Tata Group
(iv) Microsoft corporation
(v) IBM
(vi) Nettle
(vii) Procter and Gamble
(viii) Pepsi company
(ix) The Coca-Cola company
(x) City group

Communist Victory:
(i) With the surrender of the Japanese (1945), both the Kuomintang and the communists sought to occupy the Japanese areas.
(ii) In this race the Kuomintang was successful. The cities and railways soon fell into their hands.
(iii) Even the area around Peking was soon controlled by Chiang Kai-shek's forces, largely because of the military aid given by the USA.
(iv) With the massive support provided by the USA, Kuomintang government controlled the administration, ports and communication system.
(v) But the soldiers, mainly drawn from the peasants, were disillusioned and discontented.
(vi) Mao was keen on obtaining the support of the middle class.
(vii) Mao continued the use of guerrilla tactics but also ordered large-scale military movements.
(viii) Cities fell one by one and Chiang Kai-shek's army began to disintegrate quickly.
(ix) In the summer of 1948, Communist control had been established over most parts of China.

(i) The Treaty also set up the League of Nations, on the initiative of President Woodrow Wilson of the United States.
(ii) The League was expected to mediate between countries and take action against countries which indulged in military aggression.
(iii) However, the United States was not interested in playing a global role or any role in European politics.
(iv) The popular mood favoured the traditional isolationist approach, and therefore the United States did not become a member of the League.
(v) The other Allied nations were also determined to maintain a noninterventionist attitude and, in consequence, the League remained an ineffectual international body.

(i) In the 1924 elections, after intimidation of the electors, 65 percent of the votes were cast for the Fascists.
(ii) Matteotti, a socialist leader, who questioned fairness of the elections, was murdered.
(iii) The opposition parties boycotted the Parliament in protest.
(iv) Mussolini reacted by banning opposition parties and censoring the Press. Opposition leaders were killed or imprisoned.
(v) Assuming the title of II Duce (the leader), in 1926 he became a dictator with power to legislate.
(vi) He passed a law forbidding strikes and lockouts. Unions and employers were organized into corporations which would settle wages and working conditions.
(vii) In 1938 Parliament was abolished and was replaced by a body representing the Fascist Party and the corporations.
(viii) This new arrangement bolstered Mussolini's dictatorial control of the economy, as well as enabling him to wield enormous power as head of the administration and the armed forces.

(i) Even on 23 February 1917, when the socialists celebrated International Working Women's Day on that day, the Tsar seemed unchallengeable. But he had to abdicate on the morning of 2 March.
(ii) Though none called for strikes fearing that the time was not ripe for militant action, the bread shortages among women textile workers, many with husbands in the army, forced them to go on strike anyway and march through the factory areas of Petrograd, the capital of the Russian Empire.
(iii) Masses of women workers in a militant frame of mind demanding "Bread for workers" waved their arms towards factory workers and shouted, "Come out!" "Stop work!"
(iv) The city's 400,000 workers joined the movement the next day (24 February).

Original Jurisdiction:
The cases which are brought directly in-the first instance to the Supreme Court come original under jurisdiction.
These may be
(i) dispute between the Government of India and one or more states
(ii) Dispute between two or more states
(iii) The writs are issued by the Supreme Court for the enforcement of the fundamental rights.
Appellate jurisdiction:
i) The Supreme Court is the final appellate court in the country.
ii) The Supreme Court hears appeals against the decision of High Courts.
iii) Such a case can be brought before the Supreme Court only if the High Court certifies that the case invites a substantial of law as to the interpretation of the Constitution.
Advisory Jurisdiction:
The Constitution confers on the President the power to refer to the Supreme Court any question of law or fact which in his opinion is of public importance.
Miscellaneous jurisdiction:
i) The law declared by Supreme Court is binding on all courts within the territory of India.
ii) The Supreme Court is authorized to make rules for regulating, generally the practice and procedure of the court with the approval of the President.
Judicial Review:
a) The power of the Judiciary to declare a law as unconstitutional is known as Judicial Review'.
b) The Supreme Court of India has Individual Review Power with regard to:
i)  Dispute between the Centre and State.
ii) Protecting the Fundamental Rights.