(i) The premium products include the Money order, e-money order, Speed Post, Express Parcel Post, Business Post, Media Post, Satellite Post, Retail Post, Greeting Post, Data Post, Speed Net and Speed Passport Services.
(ii) To facilitate quick delivery of mails in large towns and cities, six mail channels have been introduced recently. They are called Rajdhani Channel, Metro Channel, Green Channel, Business Channel, Bulk Mail Channel and Periodical Channel.

(i) The uneven distribution of population in the country is the result of several factors such as physical, socio-economic and historical ones.
(ii) The physical factors include relief, climate, water, natural vegetation, minerals and energy resources.
(iii) Socio-economic factors consists of the religion, culture, political issues, economy, human settlements, transport network, industrialization, urbanization, employment opportunity etc.

It is used for manufacturing of gunny bags, carpets, hessian, ropes and strings rugs, clothes, tarpaulins, upholstery, etc.

(i) Andhra Pradesh
(ii) Rajasthan
(iii) Odisha
(iv) Jharkhand

(i) European companies which came to trade with India.
(ii) The discovery of a new all-sea route from Europe to India via cape of Good Hope by Vasco da Gama.
(Iii) Vasco da Gama had far-reaching repercussions on the civilized world.

(i) Net National Product (NNP) is arrived by making some adjustment with regard to depreciation.
(ii) Net National Product (NNP) is arrived by deducting the value of depreciation from Gross National Product.
(iii) NNP = GNP - Depreciation

There are three Methods of Calculating GDP. They are,
(i) Expenditure approach
(ii) The Income approach
(iii) Value added approach

(i) 1/3 of the members are elected by local bodies.
(ii) 1/112 of the members are elected by Graduates of the universities in the State.
(iii) 1/12 of the members are elected by Graduate teachers
(iv) 1/3 of the members are elected by the members of the Legislative Assembly
(v) 1/6 is nominated by the Governor who is eminent in the field of literary excellence art, social services or Co-operation.

The cabinet works through various committees called cabinet committees. They are of two types standing and ad hoc. The former are of a permanent nature while the latter are of a temporary nature

Sarkaria Commission on Centre, State relations suggested that the appointment of the Governor should be made
(i) From a panel to be prepared by the State Legislature or
(ii) From a panel to be prepared by the State Government (in effect the Chief Minister) or invariably with the concurrence of the State Chief Minister; or
(iii Invariably in consultation with the State Chief Minister.

(i) He regulates the proceeding of the House
(ii) He decides the order of the House
(iii) He decides the admissibility of a resolution or questions
(iv) He suspends or adjourns the House in case of a grave disorder
(v) He issues directions to various committees on matters relating to their functions

The Vice- President is elected by the members of an electoral college consisting of the member of both Houses of Parliament

The Administrative power of a State extends only to its own territory and with respect to which it has legislative competence, whereas the Union has exclusive executive power over:
(a) The matters with respect to which Parliament has exclusive power to make laws and
(b) The exercise of its powers conferred by any treaty or agreement

(i) The 86^th Amendment Act of 2002 changed the subject -matter of Article 45 and made elementary education a fundamental right under Article 21 A.
(ii) The amended directive requires the State to provide early childhood care and education for all children until they complete the age of six years.

On the basis of their content and direction, directive principles they can be classified into three broad categories, viz, socialistic, Gandhian and liberal-intellectual.

Factors like latitude, distance from the sea, monsoon wind, relied on features and jet stream affect the climate of India.

(i) It is the source for many perennial rivers like Indus, Ganges, Brahmaputra, etc.
(ii) The Northern Mountains are described as the paradise of tourists due to its natural beauty.

Vaikunda Swamigal criticized the rule of the British and the rule of the Rajah of Travancore as the rule of the white devils and black devils respectively.

The Arya Samaj, the Ramakrishna Mission and the Deoband Movement.

(i) The East European communist states, under the Soviet umbrella, were also in a deep economic and social crisis.
(ii) Gorbachev's decision to loosen the Soviet control on the countries of Eastern Europe created an independent, democratic momentum.
(iii) A series of workers' strikes undermined the communist regimes first in Poland and then in Hungary.
(iv)  A wave of demonstrations that swept East Germany led to demolition of the Berlin Wall in 1989.

(i) After Castro took power, the US-owned oil refineries on the island refused to process Russian oil. Castro nationalized them.
(ii) The US retaliated by ending the arrangement by which it bought the bulk of Cuba's sugar.
(iii) Castro nationalized the US-owned sugar companies. And ended the US monopolies in electricity and telephones.
(iv) All these gravely threatened American economic interests.

The US and the USSR.

The movie, Fiddler on the Roof, is about the anti- Jewish pogrom in nineteenth century Russia when an entire village of Jews is forced to move out by an order of the Tsar.

(i) Battle of Britain- By July 1940, it was feared that the Germans were planning to invade Britain.
(ii) Hitler wanted to force Britain to accept his proposals for peace by a prolonged airborne bombing campaign.
(iii) The German air force began to attack specific targets, especially the ports, airfields, and industrial installations.
(iv) In September 1940, London was bombed mercilessly, an action known as The Blitz.
(v) By October 1940, night bombing raids on London and other industrial cities began.

(i) The African National Congress founded in 1912 fought the practice of racism.
(ii) Repression was let loose against the leader of the Congress.
(iii) The ANC was banned and its leader Nelson Mandela was put behind bars. Mounting pressure at the global level helped to end the racist regime in South Africa.
(iv) In 1990 the ban on ANC was lifted and Mandela was freed after 27 years.
(v) In the elections held subsequently, the Africans were allowed to vote and ANC won the election and Mandela became the first black president of South Africa.

Canada, New Zealand, the Union of South Africa and Ireland.

(a) Battle of Tannenberg
(i) In 1914 Russian forces invaded East Prussia. Germany defeated them decisively. In the battle of Tannenberg Russia suffered heavy losses.
(ii) This caused distraction and helped to relieve the pressure on the western front. The French army made all efforts to drive away the invading Germans.
(b) Battle of Marne
(i) At the Battle of the Marne (early September 1914), the French succeeded in pushing back the Germans.
(ii) Paris was thus saved.
(iii) The battle of Marne is a memorable one for trench warfare.

A trust is an industrial organization engaged in the production or distribution of any commodity. The trust would possess adequate control over the supply and price of that commodity to its own advantage.

Fair trade is the way of doing business that ultimately aims to keep small farmers an active part of the world market place. It aims to empower consumer to make purchases that support their values.

 Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is the total value of output of goods and services produced by the factors of production within the geographical boundaries of the country.

a) As Courts of appeal, all High Courts entertain appeals in civil and criminal cases from their subordinate Courts as well as on their own.
b) They have, however no jurisdiction over tribunals established under the laws relating to the Armed Forces of the Country.

(i) The Constitution of India grants special status to Jammu and Kashmir among Indian states, and it is the only state in India to have a separate constitution.
(ii) The Constitution of Jammu and Kashmir was adopted on the 17 November, 1957 and came into force on 26 January, 1957.
(iii) The Directive Principles of the State Policy and fundamental duties of the constitution are not applicable to the state of Jammu and Kashmir.
(iv) Right to Property, is still guaranteed as a fundamental right in Jammu and Kashmir.

a) A bill which covers income and expenditure of the government is called Money Bill.
b) Bills connected with tax policy of the government is also called Money Bill.
c) Lok Sabha can only introduce Money bill and once it is approved by the Lok Sabha, it is passed to Rajya Sabha for its approval.

i) Six languages are granted the classical language status.
ii) They are Tamil, Sanskrit, Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam and Odia.

i) The word 'citizen' is derived from the Latin terms 'civis'.
ii) It means resident of a City State.
iii) The Constitution of India provides for a single and uniform citizenship for the whole of India.
iv) Articles 5 to 11 under part II of the Constitution deals with the citizenship.

Migration is the movement of people across regions and territories.
The types of migration are:
(1) Internal migration (within a country)
(2) International migration (between the countries).

Based on carbon content, it is classified into the following types.
(i) Anthracite: contains 80 to 90% carbon
(ii) Bituminous: contains 60 to 80% carbon
(iii) Lignite: contains 40 to 60% carbon
(iv) Peat: contains less than 40% carbon

1. Alluvial soil.
2. Black soils.
3. Red soils.
4. Laterite soils.
5. Forest and mountain soil.
6. Arid and desert soils.
7. Saline and alkaline soils.
8. Peaty and marshy soils.

Project Tiger was launched in April 1973 with the aim to conserve tiger population in specifically constituted "Tiger Reserves" in India.

The neighbouring countries of India are Pakistan and Afghanistan in the North-West, China, Nepal and Bhutan in the North and Bangladesh and Myanmar in the East.

i) Ramalinga emphasised the bonds of responsibility and compassion between living beings.
ii) Ramalinga showed his compassion and mercy on all living things including plants. This he called 'Jeeva Karunya'.
iii) He established Samarasa Vedha Sanmarga Sangam.
iv) He also established a free feeding house for everyone irrespective of caste at Vadalur.
v) His songs were compiled under the title "Thiruvarutpa".

i) The primary objective of IMF is to ensure financial stability and development across the world.
ii) The objectives of the IMF are "to foster global monetary cooperation, secure financial stability, facilitate international trade, promote high employment and sustainable economic growth and reduce poverty around the world".

i) The Monroe Doctrine was developed in 1815, by the President of the USA, Monroe.
ii) It declared that if Europeans interfered anywhere in America, north or south, it would amount to waging a war against the United States.
iii) Due to this threat, by 1830 the whole of South America was free from European domination.

(i) In 1894 Japan forced a war on China.
(ii) The crushing defeat of China by little Japan in the Sino-Japanese War (1894-95) surprised the whole world.
(iii) Despite the warning of the three great powers Russia, Germany and France Japan annexed the Liaotung peninsula with Port Arthur.
(iv) By this action Japan proved that it was the strongest nation of the East Asia.

Indian agriculture and Indian farmers are plagued by several problems; some of them are natural and some others are manmade.
(i) Small and fragmented land-holdings: The problem of small and fragmented holdings is more serious in densely populated and intensively cultivated states in India.
(ii) High Costs of Inputs: Seed is a critical and basic input for attaining higher crop yields and sustained growth in agricultural production.
(iii) Infertile Soil: Indian soils have been used for growing crops over thousands of years without caring much for replenishing. This has led to depletion and exhaustion of soils resulting low productivity.
(iv) Lack of Irrigation: Only one- third of the cropped area falls under irrigated area. To make agriculture reliable, irrigation facility has to be developed.
(v) Soil erosion:  Large tracts of fertile land suffer from soil erosion by wind and water. Such kind of areas must be properly treated and restored to its original fertility.
(vi) Agricultural marketing: In rural India, agricultural marketing continues in bad shape. Due to the absence of sound marketing facility, the farmers have to depend on local traders and middlemen for the disposal of their farm products which is sold at a low price.
(vii) Inadequate storage facilities: Storage facilities in the rural areas are either totally absent or grossly inadequate. Under such conditions, the farmers are compelled to sell their products immediately after the harvest irrespective of the condition of market.

Electronic Media:
(i) Mass Communication enables millions of people to get the information at the same time.
(ii) It is a great way to provide education as well as entertainment.
(iii) It helps in creating awareness among the people regarding various national policies and programmes.
(iv) The Mass Communication Systems can provide the information to people in two methods.
Electronic Media:
(i) Radio broadcasting in India was started in 1923 by the Radio club of Bombay.
(ii) It was named as All India Radio (AIR) in 1936 and again it was renamed as Akashwani in 1957.
(iii) It broadcasts a variety of programs related to information, education and entertainment.
Print Media:
(i) Newspapers are the most common but powerful means of communication come under print media.
(ii) India has many newspapers which carry information on local, national and international events to the people

Goals of WTO:
(i) Raising and stabilizing the incomes of small scale farmers, farm workers and artisans.
(ii) More equitably distributing the economic gains, opportunities and risks associated with the production and sale of these goods.
(iii) Increasing the organisational and commercial capacities of producer groups.
(iv) Promoting labour rights and the right workers to organize.
(v) Promoting safe and sustainable farming methods and working conditions

a) Several important goods are services left out of the GDP:
i) The GDP includes only the goods and services sold in the market.
ii) The services provided by the parents to their children is very important but it is not included in the GDP because it is not sold in the market.
iii) Likewise clean air, which is vital for a healthy life, has no market value and is left out of the GDP.
b) GDP measures only quantity but not quality :
i) In the 1970s schools and banks did not permit the use of ballpoint pens.
ii) This is because, the ones available in India were of very poor quality.
iii) Since then, not only has there been a substantial increase in the quantity of ballpoint pens produced in India but their quality has also improved a lot.
iv) The improvement in quality of goods is very important but it is not captured by the GDP.
c) GDP does not tell us about the way income is described in the country:
The GDP of a country may be growing rapidly but income may be distributed so unequally that only a small percentage of people may be benefitting from it.
d) The GDP does not tell us about the kind of life people are living:
A high level of per capita real GDP can go hand - in - hand with very low health condition of people, an undemocratic political system, high pollution and high suicide rate.

Communist Victory:
(i) With the surrender of the Japanese (1945), both the Kuomintang and the communists sought to occupy the Japanese areas.
(ii) In this race the Kuomintang was successful. The cities and railways soon fell into their hands.
(iii) Even the area around Peking was soon controlled by Chiang Kai-shek's forces, largely because of the military aid given by the USA.
(iv) With the massive support provided by the USA, Kuomintang government controlled the administration, ports and communication system.
(v) But the soldiers, mainly drawn from the peasants, were disillusioned and discontented.
(vi) Mao was keen on obtaining the support of the middle class.
(vii) Mao continued the use of guerrilla tactics but also ordered large-scale military movements.
(viii) Cities fell one by one and Chiang Kai-shek's army began to disintegrate quickly.
(ix) In the summer of 1948, Communist control had been established over most parts of China.

(i) The Treaty also set up the League of Nations, on the initiative of President Woodrow Wilson of the United States.
(ii) The League was expected to mediate between countries and take action against countries which indulged in military aggression.
(iii) However, the United States was not interested in playing a global role or any role in European politics.
(iv) The popular mood favoured the traditional isolationist approach, and therefore the United States did not become a member of the League.
(v) The other Allied nations were also determined to maintain a noninterventionist attitude and, in consequence, the League remained an ineffectual international body.

(i) In the 1924 elections, after intimidation of the electors, 65 percent of the votes were cast for the Fascists.
(ii) Matteotti, a socialist leader, who questioned fairness of the elections, was murdered.
(iii) The opposition parties boycotted the Parliament in protest.
(iv) Mussolini reacted by banning opposition parties and censoring the Press. Opposition leaders were killed or imprisoned.
(v) Assuming the title of II Duce (the leader), in 1926 he became a dictator with power to legislate.
(vi) He passed a law forbidding strikes and lockouts. Unions and employers were organized into corporations which would settle wages and working conditions.
(vii) In 1938 Parliament was abolished and was replaced by a body representing the Fascist Party and the corporations.
(viii) This new arrangement bolstered Mussolini's dictatorial control of the economy, as well as enabling him to wield enormous power as head of the administration and the armed forces.

(i) The Russian Communist Party could eliminate illiteracy and poverty in Russia within a record time.
(ii) Russian industry and agriculture had developed remarkably.
(iii) Women were given equal rights, including rights to vote.
(iv) Industries and banks were nationalized. Land was announced as social property.
(v) Land was distributed to poor peasants.
(vi) Lenin thought the most important factor for the fall of Provisional government was its failure to withdraw from World War.
(vii) So Lenin immediately appealed for peace.
(viii) Unmindful of the harsh terms dictated by the Central Powers, Lenin opted for withdrawing from the War to concentrate on the formation of new government.
(ix) In March 1918 the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was signed.

Original Jurisdiction:
The cases which are brought directly in-the first instance to the Supreme Court come original under jurisdiction.
These may be
(i) dispute between the Government of India and one or more states
(ii) Dispute between two or more states
(iii) The writs are issued by the Supreme Court for the enforcement of the fundamental rights.
Appellate jurisdiction:
i) The Supreme Court is the final appellate court in the country.
ii) The Supreme Court hears appeals against the decision of High Courts.
iii) Such a case can be brought before the Supreme Court only if the High Court certifies that the case invites a substantial of law as to the interpretation of the Constitution.
Advisory Jurisdiction:
The Constitution confers on the President the power to refer to the Supreme Court any question of law or fact which in his opinion is of public importance.
Miscellaneous jurisdiction:
i) The law declared by Supreme Court is binding on all courts within the territory of India.
ii) The Supreme Court is authorized to make rules for regulating, generally the practice and procedure of the court with the approval of the President.
Judicial Review:
a) The power of the Judiciary to declare a law as unconstitutional is known as Judicial Review'.
b) The Supreme Court of India has Individual Review Power with regard to:
i)  Dispute between the Centre and State.
ii) Protecting the Fundamental Rights.

S.No	Solar energy	Wind energy
(1)	Solar power is the conversion of sunlight into electricity	Wind energy is extracted from air flow using wind turbines.
(2)	It is a non-conventional source of energy Resources are available continuously.	It is a cheap and pollution-free source of energy.