By QB365 on 31 Dec, 2022
QB365 provides a detailed and simple solution for every Possible Questions in Class 11 Biology Subject - Important 5 Mark English Medium. It will help Students to get more practice questions, Students can Practice these question papers in addition to score best marks.
11th Standard
Biology
Answer All The Questions
Briefly discuss on five kingdom classification. Add a note on merits and demerits.
Differentiate haplontic and diplontic life cycle.
Compare sympodial branching with monopodial branching.
Explain the different types of fleshy fruit with suitable example.
Give the floral characters of Clitoria ternatea.
Difference between plant cell and animal cell.
Differentiate cytokinesis in plant cells and animal cells.
Explain the role of Latin and Greek names in Biology.
Write the classification of connective tissue and their functions.
Select the correct biological term
Lymphocytes, red cells, leucocytes, plasma, erythrocytes, white cells, haemoglobin, phagocyte, platelets, blood clot.
(a) Disc shaped cells which are concave on both sides.
(b) Most of these have a large, bilobed nucleus.
(c) Enable red cells to transport blood.
(d) The liquid part of the blood.
(e) Most of them move and change shape like an amoeba.
(f) Consists of water and important dissolved substances.
(g) Destroyed in the liver and spleen after circulating in the blood for four months.
(h) The substances which gives red cells their colour .
(i) Another name for red blood cells
(j) Blood that has been changed to a jelly
(k) A word that means cell eater.
(l) Cells without nucleus .
(m) White cells made in the lymphatic tissue.
(n) Blocks wound and prevent excessive bleeding.
(o) Fragment of cells which are made in the bone marrow.
(p) Another name for white blood cells.
(q) Slowly releases oxygen to blood cells.
(r) Their function is to help blood clot in wounds.
Identify the following structures and explain their significance in renal physiology?
(a) Juxtaglomerular apparatus
(b) Podocytes
(c) Sphincters in the bladder
Differentiate between rod and cone cells.
Briefly explain the structure of thyroid gland.
Discuss the various techniques adopted in cattle breeding.
Distinguish the anatomy of dicot root from monocot root.
Continuous state of dividing tissue is called meristem. In connection to this, what is the role of lateral meristem?
Explain the insectivorous mode of nutrition in angiosperms?
How is the duration of leaf determined? Classify leaves according to duration.
Explain the types of racemose inflorescence with stick diagrams.
List out the uses of Herbarium.
Describe the structure of eukaryotic flagella and explain the movement of flagellum.
Draw the schematic diagram of anaphase promoting complex cyclosome and explain briefly.
Write down the properties of enzymes
What are the different taxonomical tools? Explain in detail.
List out the characters of the phylum annelida.
Write about the different types of compound epithelium.
Explain the nervous system of frog.
Write short note on the following:
(i) Indigestion,
(ii) Constipation,
(iii) Vomiting,
(iv) Jaundice,
(v) Liver cirrhosis,
(vi) Gall stones,
(vii) Appenditicitis,
(viii) Hiotus hernia.
Explain the human respiratory system.
List the hormones of the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland?
Answers
(i) R.H.Whittaker, an American taxonomist proposed five kingdom classification in the year 1969.
(ii) The Kingdoms include Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia.
(iii) The criteria adopted for the classification include cell structure, thallus organization, mode of nutrition, reproduction and phylogenetic relationship. The merits and demerits are as follows:
Merits:
(i) The classification is based on the complexity of cell structure and organization of thallus.
(ii) It is based on the mode of nutrition.
(iii) Separation of fungi from plants.
(iv) It shows the phylogeny of the organisms.
Demerits:
(i) The kingdom Monera and Protista accommodate both autotrophic and heterotrophic organisms, cell wall lacking and cell wall bearing organisms thus making these two groups more heterogeneous.
(ii) Viruses were not included in the system.
S.No | Haplontic life cycle | Diplontic life cycle |
1 | Gametophytic phase is dominant, photosynthetic and independent, whereas sporophytic phase is represented by the zygote. zygote undergoes meiosis to restore haploid condition. | Sporophytic phase (2n) is dominant, photosynthetic and independent. The gametophytic phase is represented by the single to few celled gametophyte. The gametes fuse to form zygote which develops into sporophyte. |
2 | Eg: Volvox, Spirogyra. | Eg: Fucus, gymnosperms and angiosperms. |
S.No | Monopodial Branching | Sympodial branching |
---|---|---|
1 | Indeterminate: The terminal bud grows uninterrupted and produce several lateral branches. This type of growth is also known as monopodial branching. Example: Polyalthia, Swietenia. |
Determinate: The terminal bud cease to grow after a period of growth and further growth is taken care by successive or several lateral meristem or buds. This type of growth is also known as sympodial branching. Example: Cycas. |
The fruits are derived from single pistil where the pericarp is fleshy, succulent and differentiated into epicarp, mesocarp and endocarp. It is subdivided into the following.
(i) Berry: Fruit develops from bicarpellary or multicarpellary, syncarpous ovary. Here the epicarp is thin, the mesocarp and endocarp remain undifferentiated. They form a pulp in which the seeds are embedded. Eg: Tomato, Grapes, Brinjal.
(ii) Drupe: Fruit develops from monocarpellary, superior ovary. It is usually one seeded. Pericarp is differentiated into outer skinny epicarp, fleshy and pulpy mesocarp and hard and stony endocarp around the seed. Eg: Mango, Coconut.
(iii) Pepo: Fruit develops from tricarpellary inferior ovary. Pericarp turns leathery or woody which encloses, fleshy mesocarp and smooth endocarp. Eg: Cucumber, Watermelon, Bottle gourd, Pumpkin.
(iv) Hesperidium:Fruit develops from multicarpellary, multilocular, syncarpous, superior ovary. The fruit wall is differentiated into leathery epicarp with oil glands, a middle fibrous mesocarp. The endocarp forms distinct chambers, containing juicy hairs. Eg: Orange, Lemon.
(v) Pome: It develops from multicarpellary, syncarpous, inferior ovary. The receptacle also develops along with the ovary and becomes fleshy, enclosing the true fruit. In pome the epicarp is thin skin like and endocarp is cartilagenous. Eg: Apple, Pear.
(vi) Balausta: A fleshy indehiscent fruit developing from multicarpellary, multilocular inferior ovary whose pericarp is tough and leathery. Seeds are attached irregularly with testa being the edible portion. Eg: Pomegranate.
Habit : Twining climber
Root : Branched tap root system having nodules.
Stem : Aerial, weak stem and a twiner
Leaf : Imparipinnately compound, alternate, stipulate showing reticulate venation. Leaflets are stipellate. Petiolate and stipels are pulvinated.
Inflorescence : Solitary and axillary
Flower : Bracteate, bracteolate, bracteoles usually large, pedicellate, heterochlamydeous, complete, bisexual, pentamerous, zygomorphic and hypogynous.
Calyx : Sepals 5, synsepalous, green showing valvate aestivation. Odd sepal is anterior in position.
Corolla : Petals 5, white or blue apopetalous, irregular papilionaceous corolla showing descendingly imbricate aestivation.
Androecium : Stamens 10, diadelphous (9)+1 nine stamens fused to form a bundle and the tenth stamen is free. Anthers are dithecous, basifixed, introse and dechiscing by longitudinal slits.
Gynoecium : Monocarpellary, unilocular, with many ovules on mariginal placentation, ovary superior, style simple and incurved with feathery stigma.
Fruit : Legume
Seed : Non-endospermous, reniform.
S.No | Plant cell | Animal cell |
1. | Usually they are larger than animal cells | Usually smaller than plant cells |
2. | Cell wall present in addition to plasma membrane and consists of middle lamellae, primary and secondary walls | Cell wall absent. |
3. | Plasmodesmata present. | Plasmodesmata absent. |
4. | Chloroplast present. | Chloroplast absent. |
5. | Vacuole large and Permanent. | Vacuole small and temporary. |
6. | Tonoplast present around vacuole. | Tonoplast absent |
7. | Centrioles absent except motile cells of lower plants. | Centrioles present |
8. | Nucleus present along the periphery of the cell | Nucleus at the centre of the cell |
9. | Lysosomes are rare | Lysosomes present. |
10. | Storage material is starch grains. | Storage material is a glycogen granules. |
S.No | Cytokinesis in plant cell | Cytokinesis in animal cell |
1 | Cleavage cytokinesis occurs only in lower plants, higher plant cells show cell plate cytokinesis | It occurs through cleavage |
2 | The middle part of spindle persists during cytokinesis. It forms a complex called phragmoplast | Spindle degenerates during cytokinesis |
3 | A mid body is absent | A mid body develops centrally |
4 | A row of vesicles develops in the equatorial plane in plant cell cytokinesis | A row of vesicles does not form in animal cell cytokinesis |
5 | Vesicles fuse to form cell plate | Cell plate is not formed |
6 | There is little role of microfilaments in plant cell cytokinesis | Microfilaments actively involved in animal cell cytokinesis |
7 | It starts with the formation of cell plate during telophase | It starts as a constriction in cell membrane during late anaphase or early telophase |
8 | The cell plate grows from the centre towards the lateral walls, so centrifugal | The furrow depends from periphery towards the centre and meets at the centre so centripetal |
9 | Wall formation occurs in the region of cytokinesis | Wall formation is absent |
(i) The word biology itself is a greek word where bios means life and logos means study.
(ii) The role for latin and greek words are used in classification especially in Bionomial classification.
(iii) Named to understand and remember the scientific names of organisms.
(iv) The bionomial nomenclature (L.Bio-two; Nomen-Name) Wedtor animals and Plants is largely derived from latin and Greek words.
(v) Binomial nomenclature was originally codified in the works of Carolus Linnaeus (1753), Species Plantarum.
(vi) Latin is now used by classical scholars, certain purpose in botany and in the medicine field.
(vii) The purpose is to give every species a distinct name which will be recognize everywhere became common names abnabt soecuak vary from country to country or even from region to region within a country.
(viii) using latin and greek forms simply refresh the main language of science when this system was invented.
(ix) Other languages words now used are given grammatical endings derived from the classical languages. Ex: Blakea atton boroaghi.
Classification of connective tissue and their functions Introduction:
(i) Connective tissue develops from the middle layer called mesoderm.
(ii) It is widely distributed in the body.
(iii) This tissue includes four classes.
(iv) The connective tissue includes fats and fibrous tissues
Four main classes are
i. Cartilage
ii. Bones
iii. Blood
iv. Other minor connective tissues
Components:
Main components are of three types, they are
1. Fibres
2. Ground substance or matrix
3. Cells
(i) Three fibres provide support in the matrix, they are collagen, elastic and reticular fibres.
(ii) Main types of connective tissue are of three types
A) loose connective tissue
B) Dense connective tissue
C) Specialized connective tissue.
(A) Loose connective tissue:
(i) This tissue includes Areolar, Adipose and Reticular tissue.
(ii) Cells and fibres are loosely arranged in a semi fluid matrix.
(i) Areolar tissue
(i) It acts as a support frame work for epithelium
(ii) It also acts as a reservoir of water and salts for the surrounding body tissues hence it is aptly called as tissue fluid.
(iii) It is a binding tissue.
(iv) Fibroblasts, macrophages and mast cells are its inclusions.
(ii) Adipose tissue
(i) It is found below the skin.
(ii) Cells are called as 'fat cells' or adipocytes.
(iii) 90% of this tissue mass is rich in fats.
(iv) This tissue stores fats which are unutilized nutrients for the metabolism of the body.
(v) This tissue is richly vascularised to exhibit high metabolic activity.
(vi) Under starvation this tissue provides fuel as energy rich substance.
(vii) It is found surrounding the kidneys, eyeball, heart, etc.
Divisions
(a) White fat or white adipose tissue: Cells contain less mitochondria, stores fat.
(b) Brown fat or Brown adipose tissue: Cells contain more mitochondria, oxidise fats to release heat energy (it is called as non-shivering thermogenesis)
(iii) Reticular:
(i) It forms an internal frame work (stroma) that supports the blood cells like lymphocytes in the lymph nodes, spleen and bone marrow.
(B) Dense connective tissue
(i) Fibres and fibroblasts are compactly packed
(ii) Divisible into i) Regular ii) Irregular iii) Elastic
i) Dense regular connective tissue:
(i) Regular type mainly contains collagen fibres in rows between parallel bundles of tissues.
(ii) It contains few elastic fibres.
(iii) Its major cell type is fibroblast which attaches to muscles.
(iv) It also withstands great tensile stress when pulling force is applied in one direction.
(v) It is found in tendon (bone and muscle are connected) and ligament (bone and bone are connected).
ii) Dense irregular connective tissue:
(i) Irregular type contains thick collagen fibres and the major cell type is fibroblast.
(ii) It is able to withstand tension exerted in many directions.
(iii) It provides structural strength.
(iv) Its elastic fibres are found in the leathery dermis
(v) It forms fibrous capsules of organs like kidneys, bones, cartilages, muscles, nerves and joints
iii) Elastic connective tissue:
(i) Elastic connective tissue consists of bulk of elastic fibres
(ii) It permits recoil of tissues following stretching.
(iii) It maintains the pulsatile flow of blood through the arteries and the passive recoil of lungs following inspiration.
(iv) It is found in the walls of large arteries, ligaments associated with vertebral column and within the walls of the bronchial tubes.
(C) Specialised connective tissues
(i) Classified into 1) Cartilage 2) Bones 3) Blood
(i) Cartilage:
(i) It is solid and found as inter cellular material and it is pliable.
(ii) It resists compression.
(iii) Cells are chondrocytes found in the small cavities of matrix.
(iv) Chondrocytes secrete matrix.
(v) Found in vertebrate embryos and then it is replaced by bones in adults.
(vi) It is found in the tip of nose, outer ear joints, external ear pinna, between adjacent bones of vertebral column, limbs and hands in adults.
(ii) Bones:
(i) A hard and non-pliable matrix rich in calcium salts and collagen fibres.
(ii) Calcium salts strengthen the bones and teeth.
(iii) Collagen fibres give mechanical strength.
(iv) It mainly provides structural frame to the body
(v) Bones support and protect the soft tissues of visceral organs.
(vi) Osteocytes are bone cells found in the spaces called lacunae.
(vii) Bear the weight of the long bones of legs.
(viii) Bones interact with the skeletal muscles to bring about movements.
(ix) Bone marrow is the site of production of blood cells.
(iii) Blood:
(i) It is a fluid connective tissue found with plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets.
(ii) It is a transportary medium of cardio vascular system.
(iii) It carries nutrients, wastes respiratory gases like O2 and CO2 throughout the body.
(a) Erythrocyctes.
(b) Leucocytes (Not specific option)
(c) Question framed wrongly
(d) Plasma
(e) Phagocyte
(t) Plasma
(g) Erythrocyte
(h) Haemoglobin
(i) Erythrocyte
(j) Blood clot
(k) Phagocyte
(I) Erythrocytes / Platelets
(m) Leucocytes
(n) Blood clot
(o) Red Cells
(p) Leucocytes
(q) Haemoglobin
(r) Platelets
(a) Some nephrons, have very long loop of Henle that run deep into the medulla are called juxta medullary nephrons which aid in filtration from glomerulus.
(b) Podocytes are the filtration slits.
(c) Sphincters of urinary bladder are internal paired (involuntary) and external paired (Voluntary) control micturition.
Rod cells | Cone cells | |
a) | Rods are responsible for vision in dim light |
The cones are responsible for colour vision and works best in the bright light. |
b) | The pigment present in the rods is rhodopsin, formed of a protein scotopsin and retinal (an aldehyde of vitamin A) |
The pigment present in the cones is photopsin, formed of opsin protein and retinal |
c) | There are about 120 millions rod cells | There may be 6-7 millions cone cells |
d) | Rods are predominant in the extra fovea region |
Cones are concentrated in the fovea region |
Structure of thyroid gland:
Thyroid gland is the largest endocrine gland in the body.
1. It is a butterfly shaped, bilobed gland located below the larynx on either side of upper trachea.
2. The two lateral lobes are connected by a median tissue mass called isthmus.
3. Each lobe is made up of many lobules. The lobules consist of follicles called acini.
4. Each acinus is lined with glandular, cuboidal or squamous epithelial cells. The lumen of acinus is filled with colloid, a thick glycoprotein mixture consisting of thyroglobulin molecules.
5. It secretes two hormones namely tri-iodothyronine [T3] and thyroxine or tetra- iodothyronine [T4].
6. The parafollicular cells or 'C' cells of thyroid gland secrete a hormone called thyrocalcitonin.
7. Iodine is essential for the normal synthesis of thyroid hormone.
8. Thyroid hormones shows a negative feedback effect on the hypothalamus and pituitary.
There are various technique adopted in cattle breading.
1. Inbreeding:
i. Breeding between animals of the same breed for 4-6 generations is called inbreeding. Inbreeding increases homozygosity and exposes the harmful recessive genes.
ii. Continuous inbreeding reduces fertility and even productivity, resulting in "inbreeding depression" .
iii. This can be avoided by breeding selected animals of the breeding population and they should be mated with superior animals of the same breed but unrelated to the breeding population. It helps to restore fertility and yield.
2. Outbreeding:
(i) The breeding between unrelated animals is called outbreeding.
(ii) Outbreeding helps to produce new and favourable traits, to produce hybrids with superior qualities and helps to create new breeds. In outbreeding, there are another steps also involved.
i. Outcrossing:
It is the breeding between unrelated animals of the same breed but having no common ancestry. The offspring of such a cross is called outcross. This method is suitable for breeding animals below average in productivity.
ii. Crossbreeding: Breeding between a superior male of one breed with a superior female of another breed. The crossbred progeny has superior traits.
iii. Interspecific hybridization : Method of breeding between male and female of two different species.For eg male donkey is crossed with female horse the offspring is called as mule.
3. Artificial insemination:
(i). Another breeding method is Artificial insemination is a technique in which the semen collected from the male is injected to the reproductive tract of the selected female.
1. It is economical low cost.
2. No semen are wasted.
3. Cross breeding and outbreeding are favourable in this method.
S.No. | Characters | Dicot root | Monocot root |
---|---|---|---|
1. | Pericyle | Gives rise to lateral roots, phellogen and a part of vascular cambium. | Gives rise to lateral roots only. |
2. | Vascular tissue | Usually limited number of xylem and phloem strips. | Usually more number of xylem and phloem strips. |
3. | Conjunctive tissue | Parenchymatous; Its cells are differentiated into vascular cambium. | Mostly sclerenchymatous but sometimes parenchymatous. It is never differentiated in to vascular cambium. |
4. | Cambium | It appears as a secondary meristem at the time of secondary growth. | It is altogether absent. |
5. | Xylem | Usually tetrach | Usually polyarch |
(i) Lateral meristem increases the girth in both stem and root
(ii) Secondary growth in dicots and gymnosperms is brought about by two lateral meristems
(iii) Vascular cambium
(iv) Cork Cambium
(v) Vascular cambium produces the secondary vascular tissues. i.e. Secondary xylem and Secondary phloem.
Plants which are growing in nitrogen deficient areas develop insectivorous habit to resolve nitrogen deficiency.
a. Nepenthes (Pitcher plant): Pitcher is a modified leaf and contains digestive enzymes. Rim of the pitcher is provided with nectar glands and acts as an attractive lid. When insect is trapped, proteolytic enzymes will digest the insect.
b. Drosera (Sundew): It consists of long club shaped leaves with tentacles which secrete sticky digestive fluid which looks like a sundew and attracts insects.
c. Utricularia (Bladder wort): Submerged plant in which leaf is modified into a bladder to collect insect in water.
d. Dionaea (Venus fly trap): Leaf of this plant modified into a colourful trap. Two folds of lamina consist of sensitive trigger hairs and when insects touch the hairs it will close and traps the insects.
Leaves may stay and function for few days to many years, largely determined *y the adaptations to climatic conditions. Cauducuous (Fagaceous): Falling off soon after formation. e.g., Opuntia and Cissus quadrangularis.
Deciduous: FaIling at the end of growing season so that the plant (tree or shrub) is leafless in winter/summer season. e.g., Maple, Plumeria, Launea and Erythrina. Evergreen: Leaves persist throughout the year, falling regularly so that tree is never leafless. e.g., Mimusops and Calophyllum. Marcescent: Leaves not falling but withering on the plant as in several members of Fagaceae.
Racemose Inflorescence: Main axis is of unlimited growth and flowers are arranged in acropetal succession. Opening of flowers is centripetal.
Main Axis Elongated: Axis of the inflorescence is elongated and flowers may be pedicellate or sessile.
Types:
1. Simple Raceme: Unbranched Main axis has pedicellate flowers. Eg: Mustard.
2. Spike: Unbranched Main axis with sessile flowers. Eg: Achyranthes.
3. Spikelet: Small spike is called spikelet. The inflorescence axis has bracts at the base called glumes. Each flower has bract (lemma) and bracteole (palea). Eg: Sorghum.
4. Catkin: Pendulous spikes with long, drooping axis bearing small unisexual or bisexual flowers Eg: Acalypha hispida.
5. Spadix: Fleshy or thickened central axis with many unisexual flowers is acropetal succession. Entire inflorescence is covered by a brightly I coloured bract called spathe. Eg: Colocasia.
7. Panicle: A branched raceme is called panicle or compound raceme. Eg: Neem.
Main AXIS Shortened: Inflorescence shows reduced growth of central axis.
1. Corymb: Shorter pedicellate flowers at the top and longer pedicellate flowers at the bottom of the inflorescence. All flowers appear at the same level. Eg: Caesalpinia.
Compound Corymb: A Branched corymb is called compound corymb. Eg: Cauliflower.
2. Umbel: Pedicellate flowers arise from tip of inflorescence axis from a common point. Eg: Allium cepa.
Compound umbel: It is a branched umbel. Each smaller unit is called umbellet. Eg:Daucas carota, Coriandrum sativum.
Main Axis Flattened:
1. Head: The main axis is a flattened group of sessile or subsessile flowers arising on the flattened receptacle forms a head inflorescence surrounded by involucre. Eg: Asteraceae.
2. Compound Head: In Lagasca mollis the inflorescence axis is branched and each branch bears ahead inflorescence.
Types:
S.No | Homogamous head | Heterogamous head |
1 | Single kind of florets (ray or disc florets). | Both ray and disc florets are seen |
2 | Eg: Launaea | Eg. Tridax |
Uses of Herbarium:
1. Herbarium provides resource material for systematic research and studies.
2. It is a place for orderly arrangement of voucher specimens.
3. Voucher specimen serves as a reference for comparing doubtful newly collected fresh specimens.
4. Voucher specimens play a role in studies like floristic diversity, environmental assessment, ecological mechanisms and survey of unexplored areas.
5. Herbarium provides opportunity for documenting biodiversity and studies related to the field of ecology and conservation biology.
(i) Eukaryotic Flagella are enclosed by unit membrane and it arises from a basal body Flagella is composed of outer nine pairs of microtubules with two microtubules in its centre (9+2 arrangement).
(ii) Flagella are microtubule projection of the plasma membrane, Flagellum is longer than cilium (as long as 200 \(\mu\)m). The structure of flagellum has an axoneme made up microtubules and protein tubulin.
Movement: Outer microtubule doublet is associated with axonemal dynein which generates force for movement. The movement is ATP driven. The interaction between tubulin and dynein is the mechanism for the contraction of cilia and flagella. Dynein molecules uses energy from ATP to shift the adjacent microtubules. This movement bends the cilium or flagellum.
Aubiquitine ligase is activated called as the anaphase-promoting complex cyclosome (APC/C) leads to degradation of the key regulatory proteins at the transition of metaphase to anaphase. APC is a cluster of proteins that induces the breaking down of cohesion proteins which leads to the separation of chromatids during mitosis.
Properties of enzymes:
1. All are globular proteins.
2. They act as catalysts and effective even in small quantity.
3. They remain unchanged at the end of the reaction.
4. They are highly specific.
5. They have an active site where the reaction takes place.
6. Enzymes lower activation energy of the reaction they catalyse.
Tools and taxonomical aids may be different for the study of plants and animals. Herbarium and Botanical garden may be used as tools for the study of plant taxonomy. In the case of animal studies, the classical tools are Museum, Taxonomical Keys and Zoological and Marine parks.
The important components of the taxonomical tools are field visits, survey, identification, classification, preservation and documentation. Many tools are being used for taxonomical studies, amongst them some of the important tools are discussed below:
The classical taxonomical tools:
Taxonomical Keys: Keys are based on comparative analysis of the similarities and dissimilarities of organisms. There are separate keys for different taxonomic categories.
Museum: Biological museums have collection of preserved plants and animals for study and ready reference. Specimens of both extinct and living organisms can be studied.
Zoological parks: These are places where wild animals are kept in protected environments under human care which enables us to study their food habits and behaviour.
Marine parks: Marine organisms are maintained in protected enviroments. Printed taxonomical tools consist of identification cards, description, field guides and manuals.
Molecular taxonomical tools:
Technological advancement has helped to evolve molecular taxonomical tools from classical tools to molecular tools. The accuracy and authenticity is more significant in the molecular tools. The following methods are being used for taxonomical classification.
Molecular techniques and approaches such as DNA barcoding (short genetic marker ill an organism's DNA to identify it as belonging to a particular species), DNA hybridization (measures the degree of genetic similarity between pools of DNA sequences), DNA fingerprinting (to identify an individual from a sample of DNA by looking at unique patterns in their DNA), Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphisms (RFLP) analysis (difference in homologous DNA sequences that can be detected by the presence of fragments of different lengths after digestion of the DNA samples), and Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) sequencing ( to amplify a specific gene, or portion of gene,) are used as taxonomical tools.
Automated species Identification tools:
It consists of Cyber tools. eg. DAISY, ALIS, ABIS, SPIDA, Draw wing, etc.
ALIS | Automated Leafhopper Identification System |
DAISY | Digital Automated Identification System |
ABIS | Automatic Bee Identification System |
SPIDA | Species Identified Automatically (spiders, wasp and bee wing characters). |
Draw Wing | Honey Bee wing identification |
Neo taxonomical tools: This is based on Electron Microscopy images to study the molecular structures of cell organelles.
Ethology of taxonomical tools: Based on the behaviour of the organisms it can be classified. For example sound of birds, bioluminescence, etc
e-Taxonomic resources: iNOTAXA is an electronic resource for digital images and description about the species which was developed by Natural History Museum, London. INOTAXA means Integrated Open TAXonomic Access.
(i)Annelids are the first segmented animals to evolve.
(ii) They are aquatic or terrestrial, free living but some are parasitic.
(iii) They are triploblastic, bilaterally symmetrical, schizocoelomates and exhibit organ system level of body organisation.
(iv) The coelom with coelomic fluid creates a hydrostatic skeleton and aids in locomotion.
(v) Their elongated body is metamerically segmented and the body surface is divided into segment or metameres.
(vi) Internally the segments are divided from one another by partitions called septa. This phenomenon is known as metamerism.
(vii) Aquatic annelids like Nereis have lateral appendages called parapodia, which help in swimming.
(viii) The circulatory system is of closed type and the respiratory pigments are hemoglobin and chlorocruorin.
(ix) Nervous system consists of paired ganglion connected by the lateral nerves to the double ventral nerve cord.
(x) They reproduce sexually. Development is direct or indirect and includes a trochophore larva. eg. Lampito mauritii (Earth worm).
There are four types of compound epithelium namely, stratified squamous epithelium, cuboidal epithelium, columnar epithelium and transitional epithelium.
Stratified squamous epithelium is of two types called keratinized type which forms the dry epidermis of the skin and the non keratinized type forms the moist lining of the esophagus, mouth, conjunctiva of the eyes and vagina. Stratified cuboidal epithelium mostly found in the ducts of sweat glands and mammary glands. Stratified columnar epithelium has limited distribution in the body, found around the lumen of the pharynx, male urethra and lining of some glandular ducts.
Transitional Epithelium is found lining the ureters, urinary bladder and part of the urethra. This epithelium allows stretching and is protective in function.
Divisions of nervous system
1. Central Nervous System (CNS)
2. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
3. Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
(i) CNS consists of brain and spinal cord
(ii) PNS consists of cranial nerves and spinal nerves
(iii) ANS consists of sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems
(iv) CNS consists of 10 paired cranial nerves and 10 paired spinal nerves
(v) controls visceral involuntary activities.
(vi) Brain lies in cranial cavity.
(vii) Brain and spinal cord are covered by two meninges.
(viii) Such two meninges are an outer piamater and an inner duramater
(ix) Brain is divisible into
(i) Fore brain (Prosencephalon).
(ii) Mid brain (Mesencephalon).
(iii) Hind brain (Rhombencephalon).
(i) Fore brain:
(i) It is the anterior most and largest part consisting of a paired olfactory lobes, cerebral hemispheres and a diencephalon.
(ii) Anterior part of the olfactory lobe is narrow and free but is fused posteriorly
(iii) Olfactory lobes aid in the sense of smell.
(iv) The cavity of olfactory lobes is called as ventricle.
(v) Cerebral hemispheres (telencephalon) are the largesty part of fore brain.
(ii) Mid brain:
(i) It includes two large, oval shaped optic lobes having cavities and are called as optic ventricles.
(iii) Hind brain:
(i) It consists of the cerebellum and medulla oblongata.
(ii) Cerebellum balances the body in movements and maintains posture of the body.
(iii) Cerebellum is narrow, thin transverse band followed by medulla oblongata.
(iv) Medulla oblongata passes out through the foramen magnum then it continues as spinal cord.
(v) The spinal cord passes through the vertebral column.
(i) Indigestion: It is a digestive disorder in which the food is not properly digested leading to a feeling of fullness of stomach. It may be due to inadequate enzyme secretion, anxiety, food poisoning, overeating and spicy food.
(ii) Constipation: In this condition, the faeces are retained within the rectum because of irregular bowel movement due to poor intake of fibre in the diet and lack of physical activities.
(iii) Vomiting: It is reverse peristalsis. Harmful substances and contaminated food from stomach are ejected through the mouth. This action is controlled by the vomit centre located in the medulla oblongata. A feeling of nausea precedes vomiting.
(iv) Jaundice: It is the condition in which liver is affected and the defective liver fails to break down haemoglobin and to remove bile pigments from the blood. Deposition of these pigments changes the colour of eye and skin yellow. Sometimes, jaundice is caused due to hepatitis viral infections.
(v) Liver cirrhosis: Chronic disease 'of liver results in degeneration and destruction of liver cells resulting in abnormal blood vessel and bile duct leading to the formation of fibrosis.
(vi) Gall Stones: Any alteration in the composition of the bile can cause the formation of stones in the gallbladder. The stones are mostly formed of crystallized cholesterol in the bile. The gallstone causes obstruction in the cystic duct, hepatic duct and also hepato-pancreatic duct causing pain, jaundice and pancreatitis.
(vii) Appendicitis: It is the inflammation of the vermiform appendix, leading to severe abdominal pain. The treatment involves the removal of appendix by surgery. If treatment is delayed the appendix may rupture and results in infection of the abdomen, called peritonitis.
(viii) Hiatus hernia (Diaphragmatic hernia): It is a structural abnormality in which superior part of the stomach protrudes slightly above the diaphragm. In some people, injury or other damage may weaken muscle tissue, by applying too much pressure (repeatedly) on the muscles around the stomach while coughing, vomiting, and straining during bowel movement and lifting a heavy object. Heart bum is also common in those with a hiatus hernia. In this condition, stomach contents travel back into the oesophagus or even into oral cavity and causes pain in the centre of the chest due to the eroding nature of acidity.
The human respiratory system constitutes the conducting zone and the respiratory zone. The conducting zone includes the external nostril, nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles and the lungs which contain alveoli. The parts from the external nostrils up to the bronchioles conduct the air and hence they are called the conducting zone. This zone humidifies and warms the incoming air. The nasal cavity has fine hairs and mucus which filter dust particles in the incoming air. At the junction of the pharynx and larynx there is a flap called epiglottis. This closes the respiratory tract while swallowing thus presenting the entry of food particles into the rachea and choking. The ciliated epithelial cells of trachea, bronchi and bronchioles secrete-mucus rich in glycoprotein. Microorganism and dust particles attach in the mucus films and are carried upwards to pass down the gullet during normal swallowing. The trachea is a semi-flexible tube supported by multiple cartilaginous rings which expands upto the mid thoracic cavity. And the level of the 5th theoretic vertebra, it divides into right and left bronchi which divide into secondary and tertiary bronchi and further divide into terminal bronchioles and respiratory bronchioles. Bronchi have 'c' shaped curved Cartilage plates to ensure that the air passage does not collapse as air pressure changes during breathing. The bronchioles do not have cartilaginous rings but they have rigidity to prevent them from collapsing but are surrounded by smooth muscle which contracts or relaxes to adjust the diameter of these airways. The fine respiratory bronchioles terminate into highly vascularised thin-walled-pouch like air sacs called alveoli. It is made up of thin squamous epithelial cells, the endothelium of the alveolar capillaries and the basement substance are found in between them. The thin squamous epithelial cells of the alveoli, the endothelium of the alveolar capillaries and the basement substance found in between them. The thin squamous epithelial cells of the alveol! are composed of Type I and Type II cells. Type I cells are very thin so that gases can diffuse rapidly through them. Type II cells are thicker, synthesize and secrete a substance called Surfactant. The lungs are light spongy tissues endorsed in the thoracic cavity bound dorsally by the vertebral column and ventrally by the sternum, laterally by the ribs and on the lower side by the dome shaped diaphragm. The lungs are covered by double walled pleural membrane containing several layers of elastic connective tissues and capillaries. It encloses the pleural fluid. It reduces friction when the lungs expand and contract.
The anterior lobe of pituitary secretes six tropic hormones such as growth hormone (GH), thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinizing hormone (LH), luteotropic hormone (LTH)and melanocyte stimulating hormone (MSH) (in lower animals only). The posterior lobe of pituitary secretes the hormones namely vasopressin and oxytocin.
Hormones of Adenohypophysis:
i) Growth hormone (GH):
1. It is also known as somatotropic hormone (STH) or Somatotropin.
2. Growth hormone promotes growth of all the tissues and metabolic process of the body.
3. It influences the metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins and lipids and increases the rate of protein biosynthesis in the cells. It stimulates chondrogenesis (cartilage formation), osteogenesis (bone formation) and helps in the retention of minerals like nitrogen, potassium, phosphorus, sodium etc., in the body.
ii) Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) or thyrotropin:
TSH is a glycoprotein hormone, which stimulates the thyroid gland to secrete Triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4)' TSH secretion is regulated by negative feedback mechanism.
iii) Adreno cortico tropic hormone (ACTH):
1. ACTH is a peptide hormone that stimulates the adrenal cortex to secrete glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids.
2. It stimulates melanin synthesis In melanocytes, induces the release of fatty acids from adipose tissues and stimulates insulin secretion.
3. ACTH secretion is regulated by negative feedback mechanism.
iv) Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH):
1. FSH is a glycoprotein hormone which regulates the functions of the gonads (ovary and testis).
2. In males, FSH along with androgens acts on the germinal epithelium of seminiferous tubules and stimulates the production and release of sperms (spermatogenesis).
3. In females, FSH acts on the ovaries and brings about the development and maturation of graffian follicles.
v) Luteinizing hormone (LH):
1. LH is a glycoprotein hormone which is also known as interstitial cell stimulating hormone (lCSH).
2. In males, ICSH acts on the interstitial cells of testis to produce the male sex hormone, testosterone. In females.
3. LH along with FSH matures the ovarian follicles.
4. LH. independently induces ovulation, maintains the corpus luteum and promotes synthesis and release of ovarian hormones.
5. FSH and LH are collectively referred as gonadotropins.
vi) Luteotropic hormone (LTH):
1. LTH is also called luteotropin or lactogenic hormone or prolactin or mammotropin.
2. It is a protein hormone which stimulates I milk secretion after the childbirth in females.