(i) The French king Charles VII was helped by Joan of Are, a young girl who fought courageously and won the battle at Orleans. Joan of Arc was given the title Maid of Orleans.
(ii) However, she was captured by the English and tried by the court for her claim that she was guided by heavenly voices. She was condemned as a witch and burnt at the stakes in 1430.

(i) Pope Paul III appointed the cardinals to reform the Catholic Church.
(ii) The Council of Trent met three times in eighteen years and emphasised faith in the Bible - and the teachings at Church along with adherence to the seven sacraments for salvation.
(iii) The celibacy of the priests and the supremacy of the Pope were upheld.
(iv) The council also removed the abuses in the Church such as sale of indulgence, nepotism and absenteeism of the Bishops.
(v) It supported the image worship of Jesus and Mary in all churches.

(i) There was conflict between two royal houses in England namely the House of York and House of Lancaster for the throne.
(ii) This led to the War of the Roses.
(iii) They wore badges of white rose and red rose respectively, hence the name.
(iv) In this civil war, Henry Tudor emerged victorious and he started a new line of monarchy in England.

(i) The king setup the Spanish Inquisition through which the Jew and Moor converts were kept in strict vigil.
(ii) Many non-believers were tried, tortured and burnt at the stake.
(iii) The royal house became more powerful than the church.

(i) Holy Communion (also known as the Eucharist) is a religious ceremony performed in church by Catholics.
(ii) Catholic Christians partake of Holy Communion in remembrance of the sacrifices made by Jesus.
(iii) They accept bread and wine which are believed to symbolise (transubstantiation) the body and blood of Jesus Christ.

(i) The medieval kings were at the mercy of their nobles who were prepared to align with the king's enemies at any time.
(ii) The plague that struck Europe in medieval time weakened the nobility. As thousands of peasants died-the nobility lost their work force and their taxes too.
(iii) Nobles died in large numbers during the course of Crusades. The decline of feudalism was a decisive factor in enabling the new rising monarchy to assert itself.

1. Livery was the system of giving badges or uniform to the followers of nobles.
2. Maintenance was the system of protecting the interests of the followers by the nobles.
3. Star Chamber was the court of law created by Henry VII to try cases related to the property of the nobles.
4. It is named after the stars painted on the ceiling of a room in Westminster Palace, where the proceedings of the court were conducted.

1. The pope tried to hold peace talks with Luther by calling him for Diet of Worms. If failed.
2. The Diet of Worms disavowed his books and burnt them.
3. He was outlawed from the Holy Roman Empire by the emperor. Martin Luther's radical views influenced many and one such was Thomas Muntzer who fought for a classless society.
4. This started the Peasant's Rebelling in parts of Germany. However, Luther supported the feudal lords in this fight and denounced the peasant movement.

1. The discovery of the sea route to Americas by Columbus and the conquest of Inca and Aztec empires by the Spaniards brought enormous wealth.
2. This made Spain prosperous, and it began to play a leading part in European politics.

1. The Spanish kings were apprehensive about the Portuguese venture into sea voyages.
2. They requested Pope Alexander VI to find a solution. In 1493, the Pope issued a Papal Bull (proclamation).
3. The proclamation drew a north-south line from pole to passing around 320 miles west of the Cape Verde islands.
4. It declared that any new discoveries west of the line belonged to spain.

1. Florence is one of the city states in Italy which was influenced by a powerful merchant family called medici.
2. Cosimo de Medici who was engaged in banking with many branches across Italy had indirect control over the functioning of the government between 1434 and 1464.
3. After his death, his grandson Lorenzo took over and controlled the government. He was known as Lorenzo, the Magnificent.
4. During this period, the Medici family patronised many artists including Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci.

1. Erasmus was a protester of many church practices and teachings.
2. His well known work, the praise of folly (1511), made fun of theologians and monks.