Vasectomy in males & Tubectomy in females Devoid of ill effects of contraceptive (like nausea, abdominal pain, breakthrough bleeding, irregular menstruation or breast cancer), Reversibility is very poor.

Chorionic villus sampling (CVS) is a new technique which can be used during the 8th to 10th week of pregnancy when abortion is safe for the woman. For CVS, cells are sucked into a catheter passed through the vagina and cervix. This technique provides a mass of rapidly dividing foetal cells, thus, facilitating the examination of chromosomal disorders.

Transabdominal aspiration of fluid from the amniotic sac of the foetus is called amniocentesis.
Use. It is a prenatal diagnostic to determine the genetic discorders, if any, of the foetus.

The babies produced by conceiving in a culture dish and nursing in the uterus are called test tube babies

(i) Measure to check over-population
1. Use of contraceptive measures.
2. Education.
3. Raising of marriageable age.
4. Couples with small families should be given incentive.
(ii) Propaganda campaign:
1. display of posters showing a happy couple with one or two children.
2. Small street corner skits highlighting need for small family.
3. Use of TV media or print media.

(i) Oral pills contain hormones such as progestron and estrogen.Oral administration of small doses of either progestron or progesterone-estrogen combinations is another contraceptive method used by the females.They are used in the form of tablets and hence are popularly called the 'pills'.
Functions. 
1. They inhibit ovulation and implantation as well as alter the quality of cervical mucus to prevent/retard entry of sperms.
2. Pills are very effective with lesser side effects and are well accepted by the females.
Advantages of Saheli. 'Saheli', the new oral contraceptive for the female contains a non-steroidal preparation called  'centchroman'. It is a 'once a week' pill with very few side effects and high contraceptive value.
(ii) Schedule. Pills have to be taken daily for a period of 21 days starting preferably within the first five days of menstrual cycle. After a gap of 7 days (during which menstruation occurs) it has to be repeated in the same pattern till the desired period on contraception.

(i)Pelvic Inflammatory Diseases
(ii)Abortions
(iii)Stillbirths
(iv)Ectopic pregnancies
|(v)Infertility
(vi)Cancer of the reproductive tract

(i) Syphilis
(ii) Gonorrhoea
(iii) Trichomoniasis
(iv) Genital herpes
(v) Chlamydiasis
(vi) AIDS

Tubectomy is the sterilisation procedure in females involving ligation of fallopian tube.

Fertilisation can be prevented by barrier methods.
(i) Condoms are the barriers made of thin rubber/latex sheath, that covers the penis in males and the vagina and cervix in females.
(ii) Diaphragms, cervical caps and vaults are the barriers used by females.
(iii) Spermicidal creams are used to kill / incapaciate the sperms.

(i) Periodic Abstinence.
The couples avoid or abstain from coitus from day 10-17th of the menstrual cycle, when ovulation is expected to occur, and chances of fertilisation are very high.
(ii) Coitus interruptus.
The penis is withdrawn from the vagina before ejaculation and insemination.
(iii) Lactational amenorrhoea.
As ovulation does not occur during this period, the conception chances are almost nil; it is effective for a maximum period of six months after parturition.

(i)Pregnancy
(ii)Delivery
(iii)STDs
(iv)Abortions
(v)Contraception
(vi)Menstrual problems
(vii)Infertility

The assisted reproductive technologies enable the infertile couples to have children.
lIFT refers to the method of embryo transfer in the test tube baby programme, in which the zygote or embryo upto 8-blastomeres is transferred into the fallopian tube.
GIFT refers to the transfer of an ovum collected from a donor female into the fallopian tube of another female, who cannot produce an ovum, but can provide suitable conditions for fertilisation and pregnancy.
Intrauterine transfer refers to the transfer of embryo with more than 8-blastomeres into the uterus of a female.

(i) Test tube baby programme - In this method, the ovum of the woman and the sperm of her husband or a donor, are made to fuse ,under laboratory conditions; it is called in vitro fertilisation (IVF). - The zygote or early embryo is implanted in the fallopian tube or uterus respectively for further development.
(ii) Intra Cytoplasmic Sperm Injection (ICSI) - In this method, the sperm is injected directly into the ovum to form the zygote and then embryo transfer is carried out.
(iii) Gamete Intra Fallopian Transfer (GIFn - This method involves the transfer of an ovum collected from a donor female into another female for fertilisation and further development of foetus.
(iv) Artificial insemination - In this method, the semen collected from the husband or a healthy XII donor, is artificially introduced into the vagina or into the uterus (intra uterine insemination). - It is carried out when infertility is due to the inability of the male partner to inseminate the female or due to very low sperm count in the semen.