(a) 'psy' gene is obtained from Daffodil plant (Narcissus pseudonarcissus).
(i) 'crt-l ' gene is from Erwinia uredovora bacterium.
(ii) 'lyc' gene is from wild-type rice endosperm.
(b) Golden rice can control Xerophthalmia.

Cosmid, plasmid, Bacteriophage and Phagemids.

Vectors are of two types:
i) Cloning Vector, and ii) Expression Vector.
Cloning vector is used for the cloning of DNA insert inside the suitable host cell. Expression vector is used to express the DNA insert for producing specific protein inside the host.

A restriction enzyme or restriction endonuclease is an enzyme that cleaves DNA into fragments at or near specific recognition sites within the molecule known as restriction sites.

Deletions are observable during meiotic pachytene stage and polytene chromosome. The unpaired loop formed in the normal chromosomal part at the time of chromosomal pairing. Such loops are called as deficiency loops and it can be seen in meiotic prophase.

Loss of pair of homologous chromosome from the diploid set is called Nullisomy. Selfing of  monosomic plants produces Nullisomics. They are generally lethal.

\(RF=\frac { Number \ of\ recombinants }{ Number\ of\ offsprings } \times 100\\ \)

During zygotene stage of prophase I of meiosis I, homologous chromosomes are aligned side by side resulting in a pair of homologous chromosomes called bivalents.

(a) Pleiotropism
(b) Poly genic inheritance

(a) Incomplete dominance
(b) Codominance
(c) Multiple alleles
(d) Pleiotropic genes are common examples for intragenic interaction.

In monocot seeds, the embryo is small and consists of single shield-shaped cotyledon known as scutellum present towards the lateral side of the embryonal axis.

Since coconut seed possesses endosperm, It is called as albmunious seed. Endosperm nourishes the embryo during seed germination.

(a) Protandry: The stamens mature earlier than stigma. E.g: Helianthus
(b) Protogyny: The stigma mature earlier than stamens. E.g: Aristolochia bracteata

Pollination in gymnosperms is said to be direct as the pollens are deposited directly on the exposed ovules.

In general, the pollen grains are liberated at 2 - celled stage. On reaching the stigma at this stage, the generative cell divides meiotically and form two male gametes (male cells)

Tapetum are of two types. Secretory tapetum and Invasive tapetum. Tapetum nourishes the pollen grains.

(a) Epidermis
(b) Endothecium
(c) Middle layers
(d) Tapetum

The regeneration of a whole plant from a single cell, tissue or small pieces of vegetative structures through tissue culture is called micropropagation. It is one of the modem methods used to propagate plants.

The organisms which are dependent upon the host plants for their entire nutrition are called Holoparasites. They are also called total parasites.
Example: Cuscuta is a total stem parasite of the host plant Acacia.

The study of soil is called pedology. The best pH of soil for crop cultivation is 5.5 to 6.8.

Gases let out to atmosphere causes climatic change. Emission of dust and aerosols from industries, automobiles, forest fire, SO₂ and DMS (dimethyl sulphur) play an important role in disturbing the temperature level of any region. Aerosols with small particles is reflecting the solar radiation entering the atmosphere. This is known as Albedo effect.

Bioethics refers to the study of ethical issues emerging from advances in biology and medicine. It is also a moral discernment as it relates to medical policy and practice.

Patents, Copyrights, trade secrets and geographical indications.

Intellectual property right (IPR) is a category of property that includes intangible creation of the human intellect, and primarily consists of copyrights, patents, and trademarks.

Basic concepts of plant tissue culture are totipotency, differentiation, dedifferentiation and redifferentiation.