1. By the end of the nineteenth century Germany emerged as the most industrialised country.
2. It surpassed the home of the Industrial Revolution, Britain, and proved to be a competitor of the United States.
3. Daimler and Benz became the most popular brands of automobile in Germany and the world.
4. Germany made its mark in iron and steel industry.

1. Intellectuals played a key role in preparing the soil for the outbreak of the French Revolution
2. The writings of Voltaire and Rousseau acted as an impetus to the revolution.
3. Montesquieu, argued for the division of power among the legislative, executive and judiciary.
4. Rousseau, argued that the relationship between the rulers and ruled should be bound by a contract.

1. He did not employ children below the age of line his industries.
2. Later he criticised private property and profit.
3. He began to advocate the establishment of new cooperative communities that would combine industrial and agricultural production.
4. Owen had developed a theory of Utopian Socialism.

1) Two trends emerged out of the non- Brahmin movements. One was what is called the process of 'Sanskritisatian' of the 'lower' castes and the second was a radical pro-poor and progressive peasant-labour movements.
2) While the northern and eastern caste movements by and large were Sanskritic, the western and southern movements split and absorbed by the rising nationalist and Dravidian-Left movements.
3) However all these movements were critical of what they called as 'Brahmin domination' and attacked their 'monopoly', and pleaded with the government through their associations for justice.
4) In Bombay and Madras presidencies clear-cut Brahmin monopoly in the government services and general cultural arena led to non-Brahmin politics.

1) The colonial government was enraged at the mass struggles and the enthusiasm of the masses as evidenced in the upsurge all over the country.
2) On 13th April 1919, in Amritsar town, in the Jallianwala enclave that the most heinous of political crimes was QerQetrated on-an unarmed mass of QeoQle by the British regime,
3) More than two thousand people had assembled at the venue to peacefully protest against the arrest of their leaders Satyapal and Saifudding Kitchen,
4) Michael O'Dwyer was the Lt. Governor of Punjab and the military commander was General Reginald Dyer.
5) They decided to demonstrate their power and teach a lesson to the dissenters. The part where the gathering was held had only one narrow entrance.
6)  Dyer ordered firing on the trapped crowd with machine guns and rifles till the ammunition was exhausted. While the official figures of the dead was only about 379 the real number 1 was over a thousand. Martial law was imposed all over Punjab and people were subject to untold indignities.

1) Part of the problem lay in the expansion of the public sector into non-strategic areas like tourism, hotels, consumer goods and so on. Services which depended on interactions with consumers were doing badly because of bad staff attitude.
2) Decisions on location were made for political rather than efficiency considerations.
3) Delays in construction resulted in cost overrun, so that the units were overcapitalized.
4) Administrative prices were not always economical.
5) Public sector units were also overstaffed, though the technology of heavy industries did not require so many workers. This increased the operating cost of the units, Inefficiency in management, all are the major factors which contributed to the poor performance of the Public sector enterprises.

Within twenty years after independence, India achieved self-sufficiency in food production.
1) Total rice production increased from 35 million tonnes in 1960-61 to 104 million tonnes in 2011-12.
2) wheat production was even more impressive, from 11 million tonnes to 94 million tonnes  during the same period
3) This also created an enormous demand for chemical fertilizers and pesticides, and these industries grew as well.
4) There is also a sustained increase in the production of milk and eggs. A large reserve stock of food grain was built up by the government through buying the surplus food grain from the farmers and storing this in warehouses of the Food Corporation of India (FCI).

1) Subhas Chandra Bose was isolated within the Congress, as most leaders in the organisation's top refused cooperation with him.
2) Bose resigned and the AICC session at Calcutta elected Rajendra Prasad as president.
3) Bose founded the Forward Bloc to function within the Congress and was eventually removed from all positions in the organization in August 1939.

The Muslim League, the Shiromani Akali Dal and the Hindu Maha Sabha, all those who had stayed clear of the Quit India campaign, joined the protests and raised funds for their defence.

Centrally organized political parties exclusively for Muslims, had the following objectives:
1) To promote among the Muslims of India feelings of loyalty to the British Government, and remove any misconception that may arise as to the instruction of Government with regard to any of its measures.
2) To protect and advance the political rights and interests of Muslims of India, and to respectfully represent their needs and aspirations to the Government.
3) To prevent the rise among the Muslims of India of any feeling of hostility towards other communities without prejudice to the aforementioned objects of the League.

(i) During the First World War Germany's most fearsome weapon was the submarine or U-Boat.
(ii) The Germans adopted a strategy to starve Britain by sinking every ship it could. 880,000 tons of shipping went to the bottom of the seas in one month alone.
(iii) The Q-ships were Britain's answer to the Germany.
(iv) The British sent more than 200 steamers, travelers, and cargo vessels in a disguised form of a cargo ship and pressed into action against the U-boat menace.
(v) The idea was to lure the U-boats into attacking these decoy ships which would unleash its hidden armed force and weaponry.

(1) Divisions in the European nations:
The schism in the church led to the division of religious practices in the same country. North Germany became Lutheran while South Germany remained Catholic. England became Protestant while Scotland and the people of Ireland became devout Catholics.
(2) Literacy:
The printing press encouraged the printing of various religious teaching of reformation movement and also reading ofthe same by common people were encouraged to read and understand the Bible. The use of vernacular language in preaching and the translation of Bible in regional languages opened a new avenue to reach ordinary people.
(3) Status of Women:
Due to the opposition of celibacy in churches, the pastors of the Protestant churches became married men. This strengthened the role of women in household and in churches. Women were encouraged to read the Bible and bring up the children in Protestant methods. This led to the increase in literacy level of women.
(4) Power of Kings:
The reformation movement gave more power to some rulers such as Henry VIII, who became the head of both the state and the Church.
(5) Race for colonies:
Both the Protestants and the Catholics wanted to convert people from other parts of the world to their own religious beliefs. The Spanish conquest in South America was followed by Jesuit priests (a new sect of Roman Catholics created to spread Catholicism). The Puritans, Catholics and Anglicansset up their churches in the thirteen British colonies of North-America.
(6) Spread of Christianity:
The availability of gold and silver from the colonies made the European nations to send explorers in the guise of missionaries to various parts of the world. ''First the missionary, then the gun boat, then the land grabbing" that was the sequence of events people of the succeeding generation had to contend with.

Constitutional
Opportunity for participation in the government was one of the major demands of the Indian National Congress. It demanded Indian representation in the government.
Economic
High land revenue was one of the major factors that contributed to the oppression of the peasents. It demanded reduction in the land revenue and protection of peasants against exploitation of the zamindars. The Congress also advocated the imposition of heavy tax on the-imported goods for the benefit of swadeshi goods.
Administrative
Higher officials who had responsibility-of administration in India were selected through civil services examinations conducted in Britain. This meant that educated Indians who could not-afford to go to London had no opportunity to get high administrative jobs. Therefore, Indianisation of services through simultaneous Indian Civil Services Examinations in England and India was a major demand of the Congress.
Judicial
Because of the partial treatment against the Indian political activists by English judges it demanded the complete separation of the Executive and the Judiciary.

1. Bismarck, transformed into a powerful state with the objective of uniting the Germanic states under its leadership.
2. He adopted a "blood and iron policy to achieve the unification".
3. He realised that the unification of Germany was not possible without an armed conflict with Austria and France.
4. He sparked conflict with Austria and France through diplomatic moves.
5. He also got the support of Piedmont-Sardinia which wanted to drive Austria out of Venetia.
6. With the victory of the Austrian-Prussian War, he formed the Northern German Federation under the leadership of Prussia.
7. Bismarck his attention to create a rift between Prussia and France to unite the southern German states.
8. At the end of the Franck-Prussian War, Germany combined the unification of Northern and southern Germany.

1. The Napoleonic rule, for the first time, provided Italy with a sense of unity through uniform administration.
2. The several secret societies such as the like the Corporanari, who were insisting on free and patriotic ideas, became more spread.
3. Mazzini, Cavour, and Garibaldi were the three central figures of the unification of ltaly.
4. Parma, Modena and Tuscany were merged with the Kingdom of Piedmont- Sardinia through plebiscites.
5. Plebiscites held in Sicily, Naples and Papal States led to their merger with Piedmont-Sardinia.
6. At the end of the war with Austria, Italy acquired Lombardy under the Zurich pact.
7. During the Austro-Prussian War in 1866, Italy had allied itself with Prussia and was rewarded with Venetia.
8. In 1871, Italy took advantage of the Franco-Prussian War to annex Rome as the French forces withdrew.

1) Dr. Ambedkar came to the centre stage of the struggles of the oppressed world in the 1920's. Born in the then so-called "untouchable" caste called Mahar in Central India as the son of an army man, he was a brilliant student and was the first to matriculate from his community.
2) Ambedkar joined the Elphinston College, with the help of a scholarship and graduated in 1912. With the help of a scholarship from the Maharaja of Barona he went to United States and secured a post-graduate degree, and doctorate, from the columbia University, Then he went to London to study law and economics.
3) Ambedkar's brilliance caught the attention of many. Already in 19'16, he had participated in an international conference of Anthropology and presented a research paper on 'Castes in India', which was published later in the indian Antiquary.
4) The British government which was searching for talents among the downtrodden of India invited him to interact with the Southborough or the Franchise Committee which was collecting evidence on the quantum and qualifications to be fixed for the Indian voters.
5) Ambedkar launched news journals and organizations. Mook Nayak (leader of the dumb) was, the journal to articulate his view. s and the Bahishkrit Hitakarini Sabha (Association for the welfare of excluded) spearheaded his activities. As 'a' member of the Bombay legislative council he worked tirelessly to secure removaL of disabilities imposed on untouchables.
6) He launched the 'Mahad Satyagraha' to establish the civic right of the untouchables to public tanks and wells. Ambedkar's intellectual and public 'activities drew the attention of all concerned.
7)  Ambedkar launched two political parties. The first one was the Independent Labour party in 1937 and the second Scheduled Caste Federation in 1942, The colonial government recognizing his struggles and also to balance its support base used the services of Ambedkar. Thus he was made a member of the Defence Advisory Committee in 1942, and a few months later, a minister in the Viceroy's cabinet.
8)  The crowning recognition of his services to the nation was electing him as the chairman of the Drafting Committee of the independent India's Constitution. After independence Ambedkar was invited to be a member of the Nehru cabinet.

1) Non-cooperation government is disobey the rule but Civil Disobedient Movement is don't care about the rule.
2) The Khilafat Conference, at the instance of Gandhi, decided to launch the non-cooperation movement from 31 August 1920. Earlier an all party meet at Allahabad had decided on a programme of boycott of government educational institutions and their law courts.
3) The Congress met in a special session at Calcutta in September 1920 and resolved to accept Gandhi's proposal on non-cooperation with the colonial state till such time as Khilafat and Punjab grievances were redressed and self-government established.
4)  Non-cooperation movement included boycott of schools, colleges, courts, government offices, legislatures, foreign goods, return of government conferred titles and awards. Alternatively, national schools, panchayats were to be set up and swadeshi goods manufactured and used. The struggle at a later stage was to include no tax campaign and mass civil disobedience, etc.
5) The Viceroy admitted in a letter to the Secretary of State that the movement had seriously affected lower classes in certain areas of UP, Bengal, Assam, Bihar and Orissa the peasants have been affected.
6) Impressed by the intensity of the movement, in a special session the Congress reiterated the intensification of the movement. In February 1922 Gandhi announced that he would lead a mass civil disobedience, including no tax campaigns, at Bardoli, if the government did not ensure press freedom and release the prisoners within seven days.

(1) The Khilafat issue was interpreted differently by different sections. Lower-class Muslims in U.P. interpreted the Urdu word khilaf (against) and used it as a symbol of general revolt against authority, while the Mappillais of Malabar converted it into a banner of anti landlord revolt.
(2) In Malabar, Muslim (Mapilla) peasants rose up in armed rebellion against upper caste landholders and the British government.
(3) The bloody Malabar rebellion of 1921, where Muslim peasants were pitted against both the British rulers and Hindu landlords, gave another reason for the renewed campaign of the Hindu Mahasabha.
(4) Though the outbreak was basically an agrarian revolt, communal passion ran high in consequence of which Gandhi himself viewed it as a Hindu-Muslim conflict.
(5) Gandhi wanted Muslim leaders to tender a public apology for the happenings in Malabar.

1) Swadeshi movement in Tamil Nadu, notably in Tirunelveli district, generated a lot of attention and support.
2) While the Swadeshi movement in Tamil Nadu had an all India flavour, with collective anger against the British rule remaining the common thread, it was also underpinned by Tamil - pride and consciousness.
3) There was a deep divide in the Tamilnadu congress between the moderates and the extremists.
Development of Vernacular Oratory.
1) Initially, the movement was more of a reaction to the partition of Bengal and regular meetings were held to protest the partition.
2) The speakers, in such meetings, spoke mostly in the vernacular language to an audience that included students, lawyers, and labourers at that time.
3) The shift from English oratory to vernacular oratory was a significant development of this time; which had a huge impact on the mass politics in Tamil Nadu
4) Swadeshi meetings at the Marina beach in Madras were a regular sight. The Moore Market complex in Madras was another venue utilised for such gatherings. During the period (1905-1907) there are police reports calling students dangerous and their activities as seditious.
V.O.C and Swadeshi Steam Navigation Company (SSNC)
1) The Swadeshi movement in Tamil Nadu came to national attention in 1906 when V.O.Chidambaram mooted the idea of launching a swadeshi shipping venture in opposition to the monopoly of the British in navigation through the coast.
2) In 1906, V.O.C registered a joint stock company called The Swadeshi Steam Navigation Company (SSNC) with a capital of Rs 10 Lakh, divided into 40,000 shares of Rs.25 each. Shares were open only to Indians, Ceylonese and other Asian nationals. V.O.C purchased two steamships, S.S. Gallia and S.S. Lawoe.
The Coral Mill Strike
1) After attending the session of the Indian National Congress at Surat, V.O.C on his return decided to work on building a political organisation.
2) While looking for an able orator, he came across Subramania Siva, a swadeshi preacher. From February to March 1907, both the leaders addressed meetings almost on a daily basis at the beach in Tuticorin, educating the people about swadeshi and the boycott campaign.
3) The meetings were attended by thousands of people. These public gatherings were closely monitored by the administration.
4) In 1908, the abject working and living conditions of the Coral Mill workers attracted the attention of V.O.C and Siva
5) In the next few days, both the leaders addressed the mill workers. In March 1908, the workers of the Coral Cotton Mills, inspired by the address went on strike. It was one of the earliest organised labour agitations in India
Subramania Bharati: Poet and Nationalist
1) The growth of newspapers, both in English and Tamil language, aided the swadeshi movement in Tamil Nadu. G. Subramaniam was one of the first among the leaders to use newspapers to spread the nationalist message across a larger audience.
2) Subramaniam, along with five others, founded The Hindu (in English) and Swadesamitran (which was the first ever Tamil daily).
3) Subramania Bharati became the sub-editor of Swadesamitran around the time (1904) when Indian nationalism was looking for a fresh direction. Bharati was also editing Chakravartini, a Tamil monthly devoted to the cause of Indian women.

The major objectives and demands of INC were
Constitutional
Opportunity for participation in the government was one of the major demands of the Indian National Congress. It demanded Indian representation in the government.
Economic
High land revenue was one of the major factors that contributed to the oppression of the peasants. It demanded reduction in the land revenue and protection of peasants against exploitation of the zamindars. The Congress also advocated the imposition of heavy tax on the imported goods for the benefit of swadeshi goods.
Administrative
Higher officials who had responsibility of administration in India were selected through civil services examinations conducted in Britain. This meant that educated Indians who could not afford to go to London had no opportunity to get high administrative jobs. Therefore, Indianisation of services through simultaneous Indian Civil Services Examinations in England and India was a major demand of the Congress.
Judicial
Because of the partial treatment against the Indian political activists by English judges it demanded the complete separation of the Executive and the Judiciary.
Contributions of Early Nationalists (1885-1915)
1) The early nationalists in the INC came from the elite sections of the society. Lawyers, college and university teachers, doctors, journalists and such others represented the Congress. However, they came from different regions of the country and this made INC a truly a national political organisation.
2) These leaders of the INC adopted the constitutional methods of presenting petitions, prayers and memorandums and thereby earned the moniker of "Moderates".
3) It was also the time some sort of an understanding about colonialism was evolving in India There was no ready-made anti-colonial understanding available for reference in the late nineteenth century when the INC was formed.
4) It was the early nationalists who helped the formulation of the idea of we as a nation. The were developing the indigenous anti-colonial ideology and a strategy on their own which helped future mass leaders like M. K Gandhi.
5) From the late 1890s there were growing differences within the INC Leaders like Bipin Chandra Pal, Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Lala Lajpat Rai were advocating radical appro ache instead of merely writing petitions, prayers and memorandums.
6) These advocates of radical methods came to be called the "extremists" as against those who were identified as moderates. Their objective became clear in 1897 when Tilak raised the clarion call "Swaraj is my birth right and I shall have it".
7) Tilak and his militant followers were now requesting Swaraj -instead of economic or administrative reforms that the moderates were requesting through their petitions and prayers.
8) Though they criticised each other, it would be wrong to place them in the opposing poles. Both moderates and militants, with their own methods, were significant elements of the larger Indian nationalist movement.
9) In fact, they contributed towards the making of the swadeshi movement. The partition of Bengal in 1905, by the colonial government, which you will be studying in the next lesson, was vehemently opposed by the Indians.
10) The swadeshi movement of 1905, directly opposed the British rule and encouraged the ideas of swadeshi enterprise, national education, self-help and use of Indian languages.
11) The method of mass mobilisation and boycott of British goods and institutions suggested by the radicals was also accepted by the Moderates.

1) India has made great strides in developing institutions of scientific research and technology.
2) The only science research institute in India before Independence was the Indian Institute of Science (HSc) established in 1909 in Bangalore with funding from J.R.D. Tata and the Maharaja of Mysore.
3) The Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TlFR) was set up in 1945 on the initiative of Homi J. Bhabha, with some funding from the Tatas. It was intended to promote research in mathematics and pure sciences.
4) The National Chemical Laboratory, Pune and the National Physics Laboratory, New Delhi were the first institutes set up in India around the time of Independence.
5) Since then there has been a steady increase in the number of institutes doing research in pure sciences, ranging from astrophysics, geology/geo-physics, cellular and molecular biology, mathematical sciences and so on.
6)  The Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) is the umbrella organization under which most of the scientific research institutions function. The CSIR also advances research in applied fields like machinery, drugs, planes etc.
7) The Atomic Energy Commission is the nodal agency for the development of nuclear science which is strategically important, focusing both on nuclear power generation and nuclear weapons. The Atomic Energy Commission also funds several institutes of pure science research.
8) Agriculture is another area where there has been a significant expansion of research and development. The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) is the coordinating agency for the research done not only in basic agriculture, but also associated activities like fishery, forests, dairy, plant genetics, bio-technology, varieties of crops like rice, potato, tubers, fruits and pest control, to name only a few of the activities covered by the Institute.
9) Agricultural universities are also actively engaged in teaching and research on agricultural practices. There are 67 Agricultural Universities in India, and 3 in Tamil Nadu.
10) Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs) were set up as centres of excellence in different fields of engineering.
11) The first lIT was located in Kharagpur, followed by Delhi, Bomb' y, Kanpur and Madras (Chennai).
12) There are now 21 IITs in the country, in addition to 30 NITs (National Institutes of Technology) and about 10 IIITs (Indian Institutes of Information Technology).
13) There are about 3500 engineering colleges in the country, but government engineering colleges only number around 100.
14) There has been an explosion of private engineering colleges, particularly in Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra.
15) Unfortunately, the colleges vary significantly in the quality of education that they provide, and there are many graduates with engineering degrees who are not able to get jobs because they do not meet the standards and skill sets required by corporate employers.
16) In spite of advances, the general perception is that science research in India still has a long way to go to catch up with the more developed countries and China.
17) The research output in theoretical fields is rather disappointing and scanty in spite of the number of research institutions in the country.

1) An important aspect of the making of independent India was the reorganisation of states on linguistic basis. The colonial rulers had rendered the sub-continent into administrative units, dividing the land by way of Presidencies or Provinces without taking into account the language and its impact on culture on a region.
2) Independence and the idea of a constitutional democracy meant that the people were sovereign and that India was a multi-cultural nation where federal principles were to be adopted in a holistic sense and not just as an administrative strategy,
3) The linguistic reorganization of states was raised and argued out in Constituent Assembly • between 1947 and 1949. The assembly however decided to hold it in abeyance for a while on the grounds that the task was huge and could create problems in the aftermath of the partition and the accompanying violence.
4) After the Constitution came into force it began to be implemented in stages, beginning with the formation of a composite Andhra Pradesh in 1956. It culminated in the trifurcation of Punjab to constitute a Punjabi-speaking state of Punjab and carving out Haryana and Himachal Pradesh from the existing state of Punjab in 1966.
5) The idea of linguistic reorganisation of states was integral to the national movement, at least since 1920. The Indian National Congress, at its Nagpur session (1920), recorded that the national identity will have to be necessarily achieved through linguistic identity; and resolved to set up the Provincial Congress Committees on a linguistic basis.
6) It took concrete expression in the Nehru Committee Report of 1928. Section 86 of the Nehru Report read: "The redistribution of provinces should take place on a linguistic basis on the demand of the majority of the population of the area concerned, subject to financial and administrative considerations."
7) This idea was expressed, in categorical terms, in the manifesto of the Indian National Congress for the elections to the Central and Provincial Legislative Assemblies in 1945, The manifesto made a clear reference to the reorganisation of the provinces: " ... it (the Congress) has also stood for the freedom of each group and territorial area within the nation to develop its own life and culture within the larger framework, and it has stated that for this purpose such territorial areas or provinces should be constituted as far as possible, on a linguistic and cultural basis ... "
8) On August 31, 1946, only a month after the elections to the Constituent Assembly, Pattabhi Sitaramayya raised the demand for an Andhra Province: "The whole problem" he wrote, "must be taken up as the first and foremost problem to be solved by the Constituent Assembly".
9) He also presided over a conference, on December 8, 1946, that passed a resolution demanding that the Constituent Assembly accept the principle for linguistic reorganisation of States. The Government of India in a communique stated that Andhra could be mentioned as a separate unit in the new Constitution as was done in case of the Sind and Orissa under the Government of India act, 1935.
10) The Drafting Committee of the Constituent Assembly, however, found such a mention of ~dhra was not possible until the geographical schedule of the province was outlined. Hence, on June 17, 1948, Chairman Rajendra Prasad set up a 3-member commission, called The Linguistic Provinces Commission with a specific brief to examine and report on the formation of new provinces of Andhra, Kerala, Karnataka and Maharashtra. Its report, submitted on December 10, 1948, listed out reasons against the idea of linguistic reorganisation in the given context. It dealt with each of the four proposed States - Andhra, Karnataka, Kerala and Maharashtra - and concluded against such an idea.
11) However, the demand for linguistic reorganisation of states did not stop. The issue gained centre-stage with Pattabhi Sitaramayya's election as the Congress President at the Jaipur session. A resolution there led to the constitution of a committee with Sardar Vallabhai Patel, Pattabhi Sitaramayya and Jawaharlal Nehru (also called the JVP committee).
12) The JVP committee submitted its report on April 1, 1949. It too held that the demand for linguistic states, in the given context, as "narrow provincialism" and that it could become a "menace" to the development of the country. The JVP committee also held out that "while language is a binding force, it is also a separating one". However, it stressed that it was possible that "when conditions are more static and the state of peoples' minds calmer, the adjustment of these boundaries or the creation of new provinces can be undertaken with relative ease and with advantage to all concerned. "
13)  The committee said in conclusion that it was not the right time to embark upon the idea of linguistic reorganisation of States. In other words, the consensus was that the linguistic reorganisation of states be postponed. There was provision for re-working the boundaries between states and also for the formation of new states from parts of existing states.
14)  The makers of the Constitution did not qualify the reorganisation of the States as only on linguistic basis but left it open as long as there was agreement on such reorganisation.
15) The idea of linguistic states revived soon after the first general elections were over. Potti Sriramulu's fast demanding a separate. state of Andhra, beginning October 19, 1952 and his death thereafter on December 15, 1952.
16) This led to the constitution of the States Reorganisation Commission, with Fazli Ali as Chairperson, and K.M. Panikkar and H.N. Husrau as members. The Commission submitted its report in October 1955. The Commission recommended the following States to constitute the Indian Union: Madras, Kerala, Karnataka, Hyderabad, Andhra, Bombay, Vidharbha, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Assam, Orissa and Jammu & Kashmir. In other words, the Commission's recommendations were a compromise between administrative convenience and linguistic concerns.

1) The outbreak of Second World War and Britain's decision to involve India in the War without consulting Congress ministries in provinces, provoked the leaders of Indian National Congress and Gandhi.
2) The Congress ministers resigned in protest.
3) Gandhi launched the individual Satyagraha in October 1940 to keep up the morale of the Congress.
4) The election of Subash Chandra Bose as Congress President upset Gandhi this led to Bose's resignation.
5) The Cripps Mission's proposal of March 1942 bore no fruit.
6) Gandhi decided to embark on the Quit India Movement in August 1942.
Congress Meet at Wardha
1) The Working Committee of the Indian National Congress met at Wardha on July 14, 1942 to launch a mass civil disobedience movement.
2) C.Rajagopalachari and Bhulabhai Desai had reservations against launching a movement
3) Nehru, though not want a movement then bound himself with the majority's decision in the Working Committee.
'Do or Die':
1) The Cripps mission had turned both Gandhi and Nehru sour with the British than any time in the past.
2) Gandhi in a press interview said: 'Leave India to God. If that is too much, then leave her anarchy.
3) The Mahatma called upon the people to 'Do or Die' and called the movement he launched from there as a 'fight to the finish'.
Quit India
1) All the leaders of the Indian National Congress, including Gandhi, were arrested early in the morning on August 9, 1942 by the colonial government.
2) The immediate response by Indian people against the arrest was hartals, in which people from almost all the towns where clashed, often violently, with the police.
3) Industrial workers such as Tata Steel Plant, textile workers in Ahmedabad and across India went on strike.
Brutal Repression:
1) The colonial government responded with brutal repression.
2) police resorted to firing, The army was called in to suppress the protest. Totally 57 battalions were called in as a whole. Aircrafts were used.
3) It spread in its second phase into the villages.
4) A sixty-point increase in prices of food-grains recorded between April and August 1942 had laid the seeds of resentment. . ,
5) The leaders of the Congress, who had managed to escape arrest on August 9 organised the youth into guerrilla actions.
Outbreak of Violence:
1) Beginning late September 1942, the movement took the shape of attacks and destruction of communication facilities such as telegraph lines, railway stations and tracks and setting fire to government offices.
2) This spread across the country and was most intense in Eastern United Provinces, Bihar, Maharashtra and in Bengal.
3)The rebels even set up ·'national governments' in pockets they liberated from the colonial administration.
4) Gandhi's 21 day fast in jail, beginning February 10, 1943, marked a turning point and gave the movement (and even the violence in a limited sense) a great push. Spread and Intensity of the Movement
5) By the end of 1943, the number of persons arrested across India stood at 91,836.
6) The police shot dead 1060 persons during the same period.
7) 208 police outposts, 332 railway stations and 945 post offices were destroyed or damaged very badly.
8) At least 205 policemen defected and joined the rebels.
9) Collective fines were imposed on all the people in a village where public property was destroyed.
Clandestine Radio:
1) Yet another prominent feature of the Quit India movement was the use of Radio by the rebels.
2) The press being censored, the rebels set up a clandestine radio broadcast system from Bombay.
3) The transmitter was shifted from one place to 'another in and around the city. Usha Mehta was the force behind the clandestine radio operations and its broadcast was heard as far away as Madras.
4) The Quit India movement was the most powerful onslaught against the colonial state hitherto.
5) The movement included the Congress, the Socialists, and the Forward Bloc.
6) The movement witnessed unprecedented unity of the people and sent a message that the colonial rulers could not ignore.
Release of Gandhi
1) Gandhi's release from prison, on In health grounds, on May 6, 1944 led to the revival of the Constructive Programme.
2) Congress committees began activities in its garb and the ban on the Congress imposed in the wake of the Quit India movement was thus overcome.
3) The colonial state, meanwhile, put forward a plan for negotiation.
4) Lord Archibald Wavell, who had replaced Linlithgow as Viceroy in October 1943, had begun to work towards another round of negotiation.
The message was clear: The British had no option but to negotiate!

Separate Electorates and the Spread of Communalism
1) The institution of separate electorate was the principle technique adopted by the Government of British India for fostering and spreading communalism. The people were split into separate constituencies so that they voted communally, thought communally, judged the representatives communally and expressed their grievances communally.
2) That the British did this with ulterior motive was evident from a note sent by one of the British officers to Lady Minto: 'I must send your Excellency a line to say that a very big thing has happened today. A work of statesmanship, that will affect Indian History for many a long year. It is nothing less than pulling of 62 million people from joining the ranks of seditious opposition.
3) The announcement of separate electorates and the incorporation of the principle of "divide and rule" into a formal constitutional arrangement made the estrangement between Hindus and Muslims total.
Communalism in United Provinces (UP)
1) The suspension of the non-cooperation movement in 1922 and the abolition of the Caliphate in 1924 left the Muslims in a state of frustration.
2) In the aftermath of Non-Co-operation movement, the alliance between the Khilafatists and the Congress crumbled.
3) There was a fresh spate of communal violence, as Hindus and Muslims, in the context of self-governing institutions created under the Act of 1919, began to stake their political claims and in the process vied with each other to acquire power and position.
4) 1920s was a trying period for the Congress. This time the communal tension in the United Province was not only due to the zeal of Hindu and Muslim religious leaders, but was fuelled by the political rivalries of the Swarajists and Liberals.

1. The English conquest of Canada and removal of all danger from the French made the British government to feel secure.
2. This in turn made the colonies jittery and less disposed than ever to submit to the .dictates of England.

1. The Bourgeoisie comprised the educated middle class.
2. Writers, doctors, teachers, lawyers, judges, and civil servants formed this class.

Tenancy reform legislation was aimed at achieving three ends:
1. to regulate the rent;
2. to secure the rights of the tenant;
3. to confer ownership rights on the tenants by expropriating the land owners.

1. Zamindars in various parts of the country challenged the constitutionality of the zamindari abolition laws in court.
2. The government then passed two amendments to the Constitution, the First Amendment in 1951 and the Fourth Amendment in 1955 which pre-empted the right of Zamindars to question the takeover of their land or the value of the compensation.

Cripps announced that British policy in India aimed at 'the earliest possible realisation of self-government in India'.

Cow protectionists in the Punjab, the activities of Gaurakshini Sabhas in the Central Provinces, the campaigners for the recognition of Devanagiri as official language in courts and government offices in the United Provinces were also involved in the Congress organization.

1. While Bhagat Singh represented young men who dedicated their lives to the freedom of the country, Kalpana Dutt-represented the young women who defied the existing patriarchal set up and took to arms for the liberation of their motherland.
2. Not only did they act as messengers (as elsewhere) but they also participated in direct actions, fought along with men, carrying guns.

1) In 1906, V.O.C registered a joint stock company called The Swadeshi Steam Navigation Company (SSNC) with a capital of Rs 10 Lakh, divided into 40,000 shares of Rs. 25 each.
2) Shares were open only to Indians, Ceylonese and other Asian nationals. V.O.C purchased two steamships, S.S. Gallia and S.S. Lawoe.

1) Tagore called for economic self- development and insisted that education should be provided in swadeshi languages
2) He also made the call for utilising melas, or fairs, to spread the message of atmashakti.
3) This became the creed of the whole of Bengal and swadeshi shops sprang all over the place selling textiles, handlooms, soaps, earthenware, matches and leather goods.

1) Leaders of the INC adopted the constitutional methods of presenting petitions, prayers and memorandums and thereby earned the moniker of "Moderates".
2) It was also the time some sort of an understanding about colonialism was evolving in India.