(i) They are the land owning class

(ii) They were small in numbers, but dominated Europe both socially and politically.

(iii) They spoke French which was considered the language of high society.

(iv) Their families were connected through marriage.

Revolutionaries spread their ideas in European States through following methods. 
1. They established many secret societies to train revolutionaries and spread their ideas. 
2. They opposed monarchical forms of governments that were established after the Vienna Congress. 
3. They fought for liberty and freedom and thought the creation of nation-state as a necessary part of their struggle for freedom. 
4. Giuseppe Mazzini founded secret societies like Young Italy and Young Europe for the Unification of fragmented Italy. 
5. Following Mazzini's model, secret societies were set up in Germany, France, Switzerland and Poland. 
6. Liberalism and nationalism brought revolution in many regions of Europe like the provinces of Ottoman Empire, Ireland, Poland besides Italy and Germany.

The German people did not exists as a united nation.  Men and women of middle classes combined their demands for constitution with national unification.  In 1848, the popular effort was failure to succeed in forming constitution (Frankfurt Parliament) in Germany due to the combined forces of the monarchy and the military, supported by the large landowners (Junkers) of Prussia.  Prussia took on the leadership of the movement for national unification with its chief minister as Otto Von Bismarck.  He reached his goal with the help of Prussian army and bureaucracy.
The process of unification was ended with three wars over 7 years with Austria Denmark and France.  In Jan 1871, an assembly consisting of the princes of German states, representatives of the army, important Prussian ministers including Otto von Bismarck gathered in the Hall of Mirrors in the Palace of Versailles to proclaim the new German head as Kaiser William I of Prussia.  The new state placed a strong prominence on modernizing the currency, banking, legal and judicial system in Germany.  Prussian measures and practices became a model for the rest of Germany.

Women played a vital role in the nationalist struggles around the World.
(a) Women from many parts of Europe like Germany, Italy and Poland actively supported the liberals demanding constitutional monarchy with national unification.
(b) They too joined their demands for political rights like suffrage along with the struggle of the liberals. But in spite of their active participation, extension of political rights to them remained a controversial issue.
(c) They took advantage of the unrest in Europe to press their demands for freedom of press and expression and creation of a nation-state.
(d) They even formed their political associations and founded their newspapers.
(e) They held political meetings and staged demonstrations to gain support to their demands. But they were denied suffrage rights during the assembly elections. What the Frankfurt parliament was being convened in the St Paul Church, they were granted admission merely as spectators.

The new middle class in Europe advocated the concept of liberalism emphasising the concept of freedom and equality for all.
But at the same time, this was not visible in the political experiment around Europe. The right to vote was exclusively with the propertied class, that too only men. Women even with property rights were excluded from right to vote.
The Jacobins who stood for revolution for equality were also biased on this issue. They too granted right to vote to all adult male population only.
Napoleon who stood to end privileges too reduced women to the margin of the society with no political rights. For ling did these women and non-propertied male struggled to win political rights for themselves.

Industrialisation began in Europe during the 19th century and brought with it growth of towns and cities inhabited by strong commercial class which produced goods for domestic markets.
Along with it a class of people emerged called the new working class. It included professionals, businessmen and industrialists.
Though they were small in number, educated, liberal minded and believed in national unification. They strongly condemned aristocratic set up in the society. It was because of these ideals they gained popularity and emerged as a new social class. They stood for equality and freedom and stressed the formation of constitution given preference to representative from of government rather than established autocratic regimes.

The German people did not exist as a united nation. Men and women of middle classes combined their demands for constitution with national unification. In 1848, the popular effort was failure to succeed in forming constitution (Frankfurt Parliament) in Germany due to the combined forces of the monarchy and the military, supported by the large landowners (Junkers) of Prussia. Prussia took on the leadership of the movement for national unification with its chief minister as Otto Von Bismarck. He reached his goal with the help of Prussian army and bureaucracy. The process of unification was ended with three wars over 7 years with Austria, Denmark and France. In Jan 1871, an assembly consisting of the princes of German states, representatives of the army, important Prussian ministers including Otto von Bismarck gathered in the Hall of Mirrors in the Palace of Versailles to proclaim the new German head as Kaiser William I of Prussia. The new state placed a strong prominence on modernizing the currency, banking, legal and judicial systems in Germany. Prussian measures and practices became a model for the rest of Germany.

During the middle of the nineteenth century, Italy was divided into seven states, of which only one, Sardinia-Piedmont, was ruled by an Italian princely house. The north was ruled by Austrian Habsburgs, the centre by the Pope and the southern regions by the Bourbon kings of Spain. Italian language had varieties of dialects; therefore, it was not stable in its form. During the 1830s, Giuseppe Mazzini had sought to put together a coherent programme for a unitary Italian Republic. He had also formed a secret society called 'Young Italy' for the dissemination of his goals. The failure of revolutionary uprisings both in 1831 and 1848 fell on Sardinia-Piedmont under its ruler King Victor Emmanuel II to unify the Italian states through war. A unified Italy offered them the possibility of economic development and political dominance. Chief Minister Cavour who led the movement to unify the regions of Italy was neither a revolutionary nor a democrat. With a tactful diplomatic alliance with France by Cavour, Sardinia-Piedmont succeeded in defeating the Austrian forces in 1859. In 1859, a large number of armed volunteers under the leadership of Giuseppe Garibaldi joined the fray. In 1860, Sardinia- Piedmont's forces marched into south Italy and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies and drove out the Spanish rulers. In 1861, Victor Emmanuel was declared as the king of united Italy and Rome was declared the capital of Italy.

The German and Italian nation-states in the 19th century developed in the following ways
(i) Political fragmentation Till the middle of the 19th century, the present-day states of Germany and Italy were fragmented into separate regions and kingdoms ruled by different Princely Houses.
(ii) Revolutionary uprisings 19th century Europe was characterised by both popular uprisings of the masses and revolutions led by the educated and liberal middle classes. In the case of the German people, the middle classes belonging to different German regions came together to form an all German National Assembly in 1848.
However, on facing opposition from the aristocracy and military and on losing its mass support base, it was forced to disband. In the Italian region, during the 1830s, revolutionaries like Giuseppe Mazzini tried to establish an Italian Republic. However, the revolutionary uprisings of 1831 and 1848 failed to unite Italy.
(iii) Unification with the help of the Army After the failure of the revolutions, the process of unification was pursued by the aristocracy and the army in both these nations.
Germany United
Germany was united by the Prussian
Chief Minister Otto von Bismarck with the help of the Prussian Army and bureaucracy. Prussia fought three wars with Austria, Denmark and France over seven years and won. lt completed the proess of unification. Finally, the German Empire was proclaimed in 1871.
Italy United
The Italian state of Sardinia-piedmont played the role of uniting ltaly, similar to that played by Prussia in the case of Germany. 
Count Camillo de Cavour (the Chief Minister of Sardinia-Piedmont) led the movement to unite the separate states of 19th century Italy with the help of the army and an alliance with France. 
The regions annexed by Giuseppe Garibaldi and his Red hirts joined with the Northern regions to form a United italy in 1861. The Papal states joined it in 1870.

Napoleon introduced the following changes to make the administrative system more efficient in the areas ruled by him
(i) He established the Civil Code of 1804, also known as the Napoleonic Code. This did away with all privileges based on birth. It established equality before law and secured the right to property.
(ii) He simplified administrative divisions. 
(iii) He abolished the feudal system and freed peasants from serfdom and manorial dues.
(iv) In towns, guild systems were removed.
(v) Transport and communication systems were improved.
Due to the above measures, peasants, artisans, businessmen and workers enjoyed a new found freedom. Businessmen and small-scale producers realised that uniform laws, a common currency and standardised weights and measures would facilitate movement and exchange of goods between regions.

Das volk is a German word meaning common people.

The Habsburg Empire ruled over Austria-Hungary. It included the Alpine region of Tyrol, Austria, Sudetenland as well as Bohemia along with Italian speaking provinces of Lombardy and Venetia.

In spite of all efforts taken by women, they still were only allowed to observe the functioning of the Frankfurt Parliament.