(i) Simple stirred-tank bioreactor.
(ii) Sparged stirred-tank bioreactor.
Large volumes of culture can be processed in bioreactors for commercial production of the product.

a - Small intestine.
b - Rhino viruses
c - Nose,respiratory passage
d - Alveoil of lungs

cryl Ac and cry II Ab control cotton bollworm and cryl Ab controls corn borer.

1. Tetanus antitoxin,i.e. preformed antibodies for tetanus are injected,as the child infected with deadly microbe (tetanus bacteria) to which quick immunisation response is required.
2. If tetanus vaccine is injected,it will take some time for the body to develop antibodies and this can lead to a fatal end.

1. Active immunity is produced by injecting the microbes deliberately during immunisation.
2. Antibodies are produced by the B-cells of our body in response to the antigens;they neutralise the pathogenic agents during actual infection.
3. The vaccines also generate memory B-cells and T-cells,which recognise the same pathogen on subsequent exposure and destroy them by a massive production of antibodies.

RNA interference is a gene-silencing process that blocks the expression of genes in the parasite when it enters the host's body.

Each antibody molecule has four polypeptide chains.

Of them,two are small and called light chains (L) and two of them are longer and called heavy chains(H) hence written as  H₂ L₂.

Polymerase Chain Reaction:
Multiple copies of the desired gene or segment of DNA, can be synthesised in vitro using two sets of primers, the oligonucleotides that are complementary to the regions of DNA of the two strands and the enzyme DNA polymerase.
This enzyme extends the primers using the nucleotides provided in the reaction and the genomic DNA as the template.
For repeated amplification to be achieved, a thermostable DNA polymerase (Taq polymerase), extracted from the bacterium, Thermus aquaticus is employed; it remains active during the high temperature treatment used for denaturation and separation of the two strands.

(a) Amoebiasis is caused by Entamoeba histolytica.
(b) Symptoms:
(i) Constipation 
(ii) Abdominal cramps and pain.
(iii) Stool with excess mucus and blood clots.
Transmission 
Drinking water and food contaminated with the faeces of infected persons.
Houseflies act as mechanical carriers and transmit the parasite from faeces to food and water.

(i) Golden rice is variety of rice in which rice grain has a coating of beta carotene, a precursor of vitamin A.
(ii) It is very useful for poor rice eating human population which generally suffers from vitamin A deficiency.
(iii) Being a farmer, Anil's grandfather was concerned about the latest development in agriculture and wanted to grow such varieties which provide better nutrition contents to human beings.

(a) (i) Normal cells whow a property celled contact inhibition by virtue of which contact with other cells inhibits their uncontrolled growth.Cancer cells appear to have lost this property and as result continue to divide to give masses of cells called tumours.
(ii) Metastasis: Cancerous cells sloughed off from tumours reach distant sites through blood or other body fluids and start a tumour there.This property is called metastasis.It is the most fearsome property of malignant tumours.
(b) (i) Viral oncogenes 
(ii) Cellular oncogenes (C-onc) or proto-oncogenes when activated under certain conditions, whether could head to oncogenic transfermation of the cells.
(c) Technique like radiography (use of X-rays),CT (Compiled Tomography) and MRI (magnetic Resonance Imaging are useful to detect cancer of internal organs.
(d) \(\alpha \)-interferons are biological response modifiers are given to cancer patients.These substances activate immune system and help in destroy the tumour.

Asexual Phase
It occurs in the human host. The sporozoites enter the human body through the bite of an infected female Anopheles mosquito.
They reach the liver through blood and multiply within the liver cells.
Such liver cells burst and release the parasite into blood.
The parasite enters RBCs, multiply in them and cause their rupture.
The rupture of RBCs is associated with the release of a toxin, called haemozoin, which is responsible for the chill/shivering and the high temperature (fever) of the body. Sexual Phase
It starts with the formation of gametocytes in the RBCs of man.
The parasite then enters the female Anopheles mosquito, along with the blood when it bites the infected person.
Further development occurs in the stomach wall of mosquito.
The gametes fuse to form a zygote. The zygote undergoes further development to form sporozoites.
Sporozoites are transported to and stored in the salivary glands of the mosquito and are transferred to a human body during the bite of the mosquito.

Genetic engineering. It is a technique for artificially and deliberately modifying DNA (genes) to suit human needs. It is also called recombinant DNA technology or DNA splicing. It is a kind of biotechnology
Steps in genetic engineering:
1. Identification and isolation of agronomically important genes.
2. Cloning of isolate genes in a vector.
3. Introduction of gene into plant protoplast cell