(i) Medical Termination of Pregnancy-Intentional or voluntary termination of pregnancy before full term with help of an expert doctor is called MTP
(ii) (a) MTP is advised in the following situations-(i) when there is unwanted pregnancy.
(b) When continuation of pregnancy is harmful or fatal to either mother or foetus or both.
(c) When there is failure of contraceptive used during coitus or rapes in either case it is advisable to go for MTP during first trimester
 i.e., up to 12 weeks of pregnancy.
(d) MTP is also advised if the foetus suffers from incurable genetic and metabolic disorder.
(iii) Amniocentesis is a prenatal technique of studying genetic disorders of foetus by taking out anniotic fluid. But however amniocentesis and MTP has been misused for knowing the sex of the foetus and destroying the same if the foetus is female.

Human evolution cannot be called adaptive radiation because parent species of Homo sapiens have evolved by progressive evolution from homo habilis to homo erectus lineage.

Fermentation is the process of conversion of carbohydrates to alcohol and CO₂ by some microorganisms in the absence of O_2.  Microbes via fermentation are utilised for the synthesis of a number of produce valuable for human beings.
Some of the applications of microbes are:
(i) Production of bread using baker's yeast.
(ii) Microbes are used to ferment fish, soybean bamboo shoots, etc.
(iii) Different varieties of cheese are produced by fermentation via microbes.
(iv) Wine, beer and other alcoholic drinks are also produced by fermentation.
(v) Vinegar is also produced by fermentation.

(a) Plasmid DNA
It is often used for constructing recombinant DNA, by ligating the gene of interest with it; it is used as the cloning vector.
(b) Recognition sequences
These are the sequences of base pairs in DNA, where a restriction enzyme cuts the DNA.
(c) Gel electrophoresis
It is used to separate the DNA fragments, which separate/resolve according to their size through the sieving effect of the gel.

Convergent evolution:
It is the evolutionary process in which anatomically different organs in different groups of organisms, evolve towards the same function.
Analogous organs are the result of convergent evolution, e.g. Sweet potato (root modification) and potato (stem modification) are analogous, as they both are tuberous with stored food materials. 
Divergent evolution:
It is the evolutionary process in which the same structure develops in different directions in different groups of organisms as adaptations to different needs.
Homologous organs are the result of divergent evolution, e.g. human hands are homologous to the wings of a bird, as their basic structure (number and types of bones) is similar. 

Restriction endonucleases are enzymes that cut double-stranded DNA at very specific recognition sites. They were originally discovered in bacteria that use them to restrict the growth of viruses but are now among the workhorse enzymes of biotechnology and recombinant DNA research. The endonuclease that was first discovered was Hind II.

The collection of all the diverse alleles of all the genes of a crop plant is called germplasm collection. It is of great benefit in plant breeding programmes as it offers the breeders the entire genes and alleles and the characteristics which they express. The breeder selects the most favourable characters of a particular gene and manipulates its transfer to a desirable parent.

(a) Primary treatment
1. Physical removal of particles like debris, soil, sand or silt through filtration, sedimentation in stages.
2. Solids settle to form primary sludge, the supernatants form the primary effluent
(b) Secondary Treatment
It is the biological treatment
(i) Effluent passed into aeration tanks
(ii) Vigorous growth of useful aerobic microbes into flocs.
(iii) Significant reduction of BOD due to use of organic matter by microorganisms.
(iv) After fall in the level of BOD, the effluent is passed on to settling tanks where bacterial flocs settle to form activated sludge.
(v) Activated sludge is passed on to anaerobic sludge digester, where bacteria and fungi are anaerobically digested.

(a) Allele frequencies in a population are stable and constant / gene pool total genes and their allels in a population remain constant from generation to generation and maintain genetic equilibrium.
(b) Factors affecting genetic equilibrium are -
(i) Gene migration / gene flow
(ii) Genetic drift
(iii) Mutation.
(iv) Genetic recombination
(v) Natural selection
(c) Change in allele frequency New genes develop, old genes are lost Migration Drift New species When section of population gets separated due to migration or genetic drift, gene frequencies changed; sometimes this change in allele frequency is different in the new population so that they becomes new species, this is called founder effect.

The process of fusion of protoplast of somatic cells derived from different varieties and or species of plants on a suitable nutrient medium to produce
the somatic hybrids is called somatic hybridization. For example pomato is the somatic hybrid obtained by the protoplast fusion of tomato and potato.
The steps involved in somatic hybridization are:
(i) Single cells isolated from the selected plants.
(ii) Removal of cell wall of the fusing cell with the help of the enzymes like pectinase and cellulase. Theseenzymes digest the cell wall to expose the naked protoplast.
(iii) The isolated protoplasts of selected parents are fused to obtain hybrid protoplast on special nutrient medium under aseptic conditions. This fusion is
induced by the use of polyethylene glycol (PEG) or by a brief high voltage electric current.
(iv) The hybrid protoplast are cultured on suitable nutrient medium, where they regenerate cell wall and begin to undergo division to form new plantlets. These plantlets are the somatic hybrids.
Use of somatic hybridization:
Species of plants in which sexual hybridization or breeding is not possible can be hybridized by somatic hybridization.
Somatic hybridization produces hybrids between those lines or species where it is not possible through sexual hybridization.
This technique isuseful in raising allopolyploids.

Where corrective treatments are not available, there are special techniques called Assisted Reproductive Technologies (ART) to help the couple produce children; they are as follows:
1. Test Tube Baby programmes
1. In this method, ovum from the wife or a donor female and the sperms from the husband or a donor are allowed to fuse under simulated conditions (as that of the body) in the laboratory; it is called in vitro fertilisation (IVF).
2. The zygote or early embryo is transferred into the uterus or fallopian tube for further development; this process is called Embryo Transfer (ET) and can be done in the following ways:
(i) The zygote or embryo up to eight blastomeres is transferred into the fallopian tube; it is called Zygote Intra-Fallopian Transfer (ZIFT).
(ii) Embryos with more than eight blastomeres are transferred into the uterus.It is called Intra Uterine Transfer (IUT).
2. Gamete Intra-Fallopian Transfer (GIFT).
This method involves the transfer of an ovum collected from a donor female into another female, who cannot produce ova but can provide suitable conditions for fertilisation and further development of the foetus up to parturition.
3. Intra Cytoplasmic Sperm Injection (ICSI).
In this method, the sperm is directly injected into the ovum to form an embryo in the laboratory and then embryo transfer is carried out.
4. Artificial Insemination
(i) In this method, the semen collected from the husband or a healthy donor is artificially introduced into the vagina or into the uterus (intra uterine insemination).
(ii) This method is used in cases where infertility is due to the inability of the male partner to seminate the female or due to very low sperm counts in the ejaculates.