A - Nitromethane - CH₃NO₂.
B - Chloropicrin - CCl₃ - NO₂.

Benzoic acid uses :
(i) as food preservative either in the pure form or in the form of sodium benzoate
(ii) in medicine as an urinary antiseptic
(iii) for manufacture of dyes

(i) In monochloro acetic acid, the -I effect of chlorine (electron withdrawing group) increases its strength.

(ii) This effect weakens the -O-H bond. There by facilitating the removal of H from -OH group. This acid (ClCH₂COOH) becomes stronger than formic acid.

(i) 2-amino-2-methyl propane
\(\quad { CH }_{ 3 }-\overset { \underset { | }{ { CH }_{ 3 } } }{ \underset { \overset { | }{ { NH }_{ 3 } } }{ C } } -{ CH }_{ 3 }\)
(ii) 2-(N, N- dimethyl) amino butane
\({ CH }_{ 3 }-{ CH }_{ 2 }-\overset { \underset { | }{ { CH }_{ 3 } } }{ CH } -\overset { \underset { | }{ { CH }_{ 3 } } }{ N } -{ CH }_{ 3 }\)

(i) Addition polymerisation
(ii) (a) HDPE (High Density Polyethylene):
(b) LDPE (Low Density polyethylene).

On the basic of their source polymers are classified as
(i) Natural polymers (obtained from plants/ animals). E.g. Cellulose, Silk
(ii) Synthetic polymers (man made from chemicals) E.g. polythene, PVC, etc.,
Semisynthetic polymers (natural polymersmodified by chemical treatment)
E.g. viscose rayon, cellulose diacetate.

Humans cannot use cellulose as food because our digestive systems do not contain the necessary enzymes (glycosidases or cellulases) that can hydrolyse the cellulose.

Human blood contains about 100 mg/dL of glucose, hence it is also known as blood sugar.

Powdered charcoal will adsorb more gas because of its larger surface area than a lump of charcoal.

A plot between the amount of adsorbate adsorbed and pressure or concentration of adsorbate at constant temperature is called adsorption isotherms.

The standard aqueous electrode potential at 298K for various metal - metal ion electrodes are arranged in the decreasing order of their standard reduction potential values as shown in the figure. This series is called electrochemical series.

The two types of batteries are primary batteries (non - rechargeable) and secondary batteries (rechargeable).

When anisole is treated with a mixture of cone. HNO₃ and cone. H₂SO₄, it gives a mixture of ortho and para nitro anisole.

Ostwald's dilution law is applicable only for weak electrolyte and does not hold good for concentrated solution.

Buffer is a solution which consists of a mixture of a weak acid and its conjugate base (or) a weak base and its conjugate acid.

Molar conductance = Λ_{m =} \( \frac{k\ (Sm^{-1})\times10^{-3}}{M} mol^{-1}m^{3} \)
\(= \frac{(12.04 \times 10^{-2} Sm^{-1}) \times 10^{-3} (mol^{-1}m^{3})} {0.025}\)
= 481.6 x 10^-5 Sm²mol^-1

Given that H₃O⁺ = \(2\times10^{-3}M\)
\(K_{w}=[H_{3}O^{+}][OH^{-}]\)
\(\therefore [OH^{-}]=\frac{K_{w}}{[H_{3}O^{+}]}=\frac{1\times10^{-14}}{2\times10^{-3}}=0.5\times10^{-11}M\)
\(2\times10^{-3} >>0.5\times10^{-11}\)
i.e., [H₃O⁺]>>[OH^-], hence the juice is acidic in nature

(i) It is instantaneous.
(ii) It is non-specific.
(iii) No transfer of electrons.
(iv) Multilayer of adsorbate is formula.

a) Primary and secondary nitroalkanes, having α-H, also show an equilibrium mixture of two tautomers namely nitro - and aci - form

b) Difference:

S.No	Nitro form	Aci - form
1.	Less acidic in nature.	More acidic
2.	Dissolves in NaOH slowly	Dissolves in NaOH instantly
3.	Decolourises FeCl3 solution	With FeCl3 gives reddish brown colour
4.	Electrical conductivity is low	Electrical conductivity is high

 

Isomerism	Structural formula of isomers
Chain isomerism: They differ in the length of carbon chain.
Position isomerism: They differ in the position of nitro group.
Functional isomerism: Nitroalkanes exhibit functional isomerism with alkylnitrites	\( \mathrm{CH}_{3} \mathrm{CH}_{2} \mathrm{CH}_{2} \mathrm{CH}_{2}-\mathrm{NO}_{2} \text { and } \mathrm{CH}_{3} \mathrm{CH}_{2} \mathrm{CH}_{2} \mathrm{CH}_{2}-\mathrm{O}-\mathrm{N}=\mathrm{O}\\ \quad 1 - nitrobutane \quad \quad \quad \quad \quad \quad \quad butyl \ nitrite\)

An alcohol:

An alkylhalide:

An alkene:

(i) Many micro organisms (bacteria, fungi and moulds) produce certain chemicals which inhibit the growth or metabolism of some other micro organism. Such chemicals are called antibiotics.
(ii) Eg: Penicillin from the mould penicillium notatum

\(\mathrm{HClO}_{4} \rightleftharpoons \mathrm{H}^{+}+\mathrm{ClO}_{4}^{-}\)
Bronsted Acid Proton Conjugate Base
HClO₄ can donate a proton. Therefore HClO₄ is an acid. Its conjugate base is ClO₄^-

(i) An alloy is formed by blending a metal with one or more other elements. The elements may be metals or non-metals or both.
(ii) The bulk metal is named as solvent, and the other elements in smaller portions are called solute.
(iii) The alloys so formed are hard and often have high melting points.
(iv) Example: Ferrous alloys, gold - copper alloy, chrome alloys etc.

(i) 2 CrO₄^2- + 2H+ ⟶ Cr₂O₇^2- + H₂O
(ii) 2KMnO₄ \(\overset { \triangle }{ \underset { 513 k }{ \longrightarrow } } \) K₂Mn₄O₄ + MnO₂ + O₂

In \(\frac { { k }_{ 2 } }{ { k }_{ 1 } } =\frac { { E }_{ a } }{ R } \left[ \frac { { T }_{ 2 }-{ T }_{ 1 } }{ { T }_{ 1 }{ T }_{ 2 } } \right] \)
In 2 = \(\frac { { E }_{ a } }{ R } \) \(\left[ \frac { 10 }{ 300\times 310 } \right] \)
E_a = 9300 R In 2
= 53.4 kJ mol^-1

Minus sign i.e.  \(\frac { -dA }{ dt } \) or \(\frac { -dB }{ dt } \) indicates decreases in the concentration of reactants whereas + sign indicates in the concentration of products with time i.e. \(\frac { +dC }{ dt } \)

(i) Sulphur has great catenation property and forms large molecule having high weight, which results higher melting point.
(ii) While oxygen exists as diatomic molecule of less molecular weight, hence has very low melting point.

(i) Nitric acid is used as a oxidising agent and in the preparation of aqua regia.
(ii) Salts of nitric acid are used in photography (AgNO₃) and gun powder for fire arms (NaNO₃)·

There are seven primitive crystal systems; cubic, tetragonal, orthorhombic, hexagonal, monoclinic, triclinic and rhombohedral.

(i) The intermolecular forces of attraction that are present in solids are very strong.
(ii) The constituent particles of solids have fixed position.
(iii) Hence, solids have a definite volume.

Chlorosilazanes is Cl₃Si - NH - SiCl_3.Silicon tetrachloride undergoes ammonolysis to form chlorosilazanes.
\(2Si{ Cl }_{ 4 }+{ NH }_{ 3 }\overset { 330K }{ \underset { Ether }{ \longrightarrow } } { Cl }_{ 3 }Si-NH-Si{ Cl }_{ 3 }\).

The name alum is given to the double salt of potassium aluminium sulphate.
[K₂SO₄.Al₂(SO₄)₃.24H₂O]

(i) Iron is used in the manufacture of wrought iron and steel.
(ii) Cast iron is used for casting stoves, railway sleepers, toys, etc.
(iii) Stainless steel is used for cycles, automobiles, utensils, pens, etc.
(iv) Chrome steel is used for cutting tools and crushing machines

Ligands NH₃ AND Cl^-
Central metal Co (in cationic complex).

(i) In  [Fe(CN)₆]^4-, Let the oxidation number of iron is x:
The net charge: -4 = x + 6 (-1) => x = +2
(ii) In  [Co(NH₃)₅]²⁺, let the oxidation number of cobalt is x:
The net charge: +2 = x + 5(0) + 1 (-1) => x = +3

(a) Rate = \(k{ \left[ x \right] }^{ 3/2 }{ \left[ y \right] }^{ 0 }=k[x]^{3/2}\)
(b) 2NO + Br₂ ⟶ 2NOBr
Rate = k[NO]²[Br₂]

Potassium dichromate is prepared from chromate ore (FeCr₂O₄). The ore is concentrated by gravity separation. It is then mixed with excess sodium carbonate and lime and roasted in a reverberatory furnace.

The roasted mass is treated with water to separate soluble sodium chromate from insoluble iron oxide. The yellow solution of Sodium Chromate is treated with concentrated Sulphuric acid which converts Sodium Chromate into Sodium dichromate.

The saturated solution of sodium dichromate is mixed with KCl and filtered, the filtrate is cooled to obtain K₂Cr₂O₇ crystals.
\(\begin{array}{cc} \mathrm{Na}_{2} \mathrm{Cr}_{2} \mathrm{O}_{7}+2 \mathrm{KCl} & \rightarrow \mathrm{K}_{2} \mathrm{Cr}_{2} \mathrm{O}_{7}+2 \mathrm{NaCl} \\ \begin{array}{c} \text { Sodium dichromate } \\ \text { (orange red) } \end{array} & \begin{array}{c} \text { Potassium dichromate } \\ \text { (orange red) } \end{array} \end{array}\)

Addition of an alcoholic solution of dimethylglyoxime to an ammoniacal solution of Ni(II) gives rose - red precipitate Ni[ONCC N OH]₂ Nickel Cis (dimethylglyoximate)

a) potassiumhexacyanidoferrate(II) - Potassiumhexacyanidoferrate(II) - K₄[Fe(CN)₆]
b) Pentacarbonyliron(0) - [Fe(CO)₅]
c) Pentaamminenitrito −kNcobalt(III)ion - [Co(NH₃)₅(NO₂)]²⁺
d) Hexaamminecobalt(III) Sulphate  - [CO(NH₃)₆](SO₄)₃
e) Sodiumtetrafluoridodihydroxidochromate(III)  - Na₂[CrF₄(OH)₂]

The imperfection occurs due to missing atoms, displaced atoms or extra atoms, is named as a point defect. Such defects arise due to imperfect packing during the original crystallisation or they may arise from thermal vibrations of atoms at elevated temperatures.

(i) Fluorine is more electro negative than other halogens.
(ii) Because except fluorine all the other halogens have positive oxidation state.
(iii) It has high electron affinity character
Example:
\(\mathrm{Cl}_{2}\mathrm{O} \Rightarrow+1 \text { oxidation state }(\mathrm{Cl}) \)
\(\mathrm{OF}_{2} \Rightarrow-1 \text { oxidation state }(\mathrm{F})\)

In this extraction, a basic flux, quick lime (CaO) is used, since the silica gangue present in the ore is acidic in nature. The quick lime combines with it to form calcium silicate (slag).
CaO_(s) + Sio_2(s) ⟶ CaSio_3(s)
Flux       Gangue    Slag

(i) Concentration of the ore
(ii) Extraction of crude metal
(iii) Refining of crude metal

(i) Acid catalysed hydration

(ii) Hydroboration

(iii) Hydroxylation using Baeyer's reagent

 
Since 1 - methoxy propane has primary alkyl group, it under goes SN2 reaction.

(i) Preservatives are chemicals added to food which are capable of inhibiting, retarding or arresting the process of fermentation, acidification or other decomposition of food by the growth of micro organisms (or)
(ii) Chemical substances which are added to food that prevents the spoilage of food materials by destroying the food - spoiling micro-organisms are called food preservatives.
(iii) Eg: sodium benzoate, NaCl, Acetic acid Sodium metabisulphite, potassium meta bisulphite etc.

Average rate of reaction:
The average rate is defined as the ratio of change in the final concentration of reactants and the initial concentration of reactants over the entire time period of reaction.
Average rate=\(\frac{-[Final \space concentration \space of \space reactants - Initial \space concentration \space of \space reactants}{(Change \space in \space time)}\)
R \(=\frac{-\left(\left[A_{2}\right]-\left[A_{1}\right]\right)}{\left(t_{2}-t_{1}\right)}=-\left(\frac{\Delta[A]}{\Delta t}\right)\)
[A]₁ = Concentration of reactant A₁ at time t₁
[A]₂ = Concentration of reactant A₂ at time t₂
Instantaneous rate of reaction:
The rate of reaction at any particular instant during the course of reaction is called as instantaneous rate.
Instantaneous rate \(=(\text { Average rate })_{\Delta t \rightarrow 0}\)
Rate of the reaction \(=\left(\frac{-\Delta \mathrm{A}}{\Delta \mathrm{t}}\right)\)

IUPAC defines transition metal as an element whose atom has an incomplete d-sub shell or which can give rise to cations with an incomplete d-sub shell. They occupy the central position of the periodic table, between s and p-block elements.
Examples: Fe, Cu, Ag, Au

(i) Ionic solids have high melting points.
(ii) These solids do not conduct electricity, because the ions are fixed in their lattice positions.
(iii) They are hard so strong external force can change the relative positions of ions.

Each halogen combines with other halogens to form a series of compounds are called interhalogen compounds.
Example: AB type: BrF
AB₃ type: ICI₃

(i) Borax is used for the identification of coloured metal ions.
(ii) In the manufacture optical and borosilicate glass, enamels and glazes for pottery.
(iii) It is also used as a flux in metallurgy.
(iv) It acts as a good preservative.

S.No	Physical adsorption or vander waals adsorption or Physisorption	Chemical adsorption or Chemisorption or Activated adsorption
1.	It is instantaneous	It is very slow
2.	It is non-specific	It is very specific depends on nature of adsorbent and adsorbate
3.	In Physisorption, when pressure increases the amount of adsorption increases	Chemical adsorption is fast with increase pressure, it can not alter the amount.
4.	Physisorption decreases with increase in temerature	When temperature is raised chemisorption first increases and then decreases
5.	No transfer of electrons	Chemisorption involves transfer of electrons between the adsorbent and adsorbate
6.	Heat of adsorption is low in the order of 40kJ/ mole.	Heat of adsorption is high i.e., from 40- 400kJ/mole.
7.	Multilayer of the adsorbate is formed on the adsorbent.	Monolayer of the adsorbate is formed
8.	It occurs on all sides	Adsorption occurs at fixed sites called active centres. It depends on surface area
9	Activation energy is insignificant.	Chemisorption involves the formation of activated complex with appreciable activation energy.

1. Daniel cell is a galvanic cell. This is a voltaic cell also.
(a) The separation of half reaction is the basis for the construction of Daniel cell. It consists of two half cells.
(i) Oxidation half cell: A metallic zinc strip  that dips into an aqueous solution of zinc sulphate taken in a beaker, as shown in Figure
(ii) Reduction half cell: A copper strip that dips into an aqueous solution of copper sulphate taken in a beaker, as shown in Figure

(iii) Joining the half cells:
(a) The zinc and copper strips are externally connected using a wire through a switch (k) and a load (example: volt meter). The electrolytic solution present in the cathodic and anodic compartment are connected using an inverted U tube containing a agar-agar gel mixed with an inert electrolyte such as KCI, Na₂SO₄ etc.,
(b) The ions of inert electrolyte do not react with other ions present in the half I cells and they are not either oxidised (or) reduced at the electrodes. The solution in the salt bridge cannot get poured out, but through which the ions can move into (or) out of the half cells.
(c) When the switch (k) closes the circuit, the electrons flows from zinc strip to copper strip. This is due to the following redox reactions which are taking place at the respective electrodes.
(iv) Anodic oxidation:
(i) zinc strip acts as the anode.
(ii) Here,oxidation occurs.
The electrode at which the oxidation occur is called the anode. In Daniel cell, the oxidation take place at zinc electrode, i.e., zinc is oxidised to Zn²⁺ ions and the electrons.
The Zn²⁺ ions enters the solution and the electrons enter the zinc metal, then flow through the external wire and then enter the copper strip.
Electrons are liberated at zinc electrode and hence it is negative (-ve).
\(Zn_{ (s) }\longrightarrow { { Zn }^{ 2+ }_{ (aq) }+{ 2e }^{ - } } \)  (loss of electron-oxidation)  
(v) Cathodic reduction:
As discussed earlier. the electrons flow through the circuit from zinc to copper, where the Cu²⁺ ions in the solution accept the electrons, get reduced to copper and the same get deposited on the electrode Here, the electrons are consumed and hence it is positive (+ve).
\({ Cu }_{ (aq) }^{ 2+ }+{ 2e }^{ - }\longrightarrow { { Cu }_{ (s) } } \)(gain of electron - reduction)
b) When a Zinc metal strip is placed in a copper sulphate solution, the blue colour of the solution fades and the copper is deposited on the zinc strip as red - brown crust due to the following spontaneous chemical reaction.
\(\mathrm{Zn}_{(\mathrm{s})}+\mathrm{CuSO}_{4(\mathrm{aq})} \rightarrow \mathrm{ZnSO}_{4(\mathrm{aq})}+\mathrm{Cu}_{(\mathrm{s})}\)
The energy produced in the above reaction is lost to the surroundings as heat.
In the above redox reaction, Zinc is oxidised to Zn²⁺ ions and the Cu²⁺ ions are reduced to metallic copper. The half reactions are represented as below.
\(\mathrm{Zn}_{(\mathrm{s})} \rightarrow \mathrm{Zn}^{2+}{ }_{(\mathrm{aq})}+2 \mathrm{e}^{-} \text {(oxidation) }  \)
\(\mathrm{Cu}^{2+}{ }_{(\mathrm{aq})}+2 \mathrm{e}^{-} \rightarrow \mathrm{Cu}_{(\mathrm{s})} \text { (reduction) }\)
If we perform the above two half reactions separately in an apparatus as shown in figure, some of the energy produced in the reaction will be converted into electrical energy.

Primary structure of Proteins:
Proteins are polypeptide chains, made up of amino acids are connected through peptide bonds. The relative arrangement of the amino acids in the polypeptide chain is called the primary structure of the protein. Knowledge of this is essential as even small changes have potential to alter the overall structure and function of a protein.
\(\mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{~N}-\mathrm{Gly}-\mathrm{Met}-\mathrm{Phe}-\mathrm{Cys}-\mathrm{Arg}-\mathrm{Asp}-\mathrm{COOH}\)
α - Helix:
In the α-helix sub-structure, the amino acids are arranged in a right handed helical (spiral) structure and are stabilised by the hydrogen bond between the carbonyl oxygen of one amino acid (n residue) with amino hydrogen of the fifth residue (n + 4^th residue). The side chains of the residues protrude outside of the helix. Each turn of an α-helix contains about 3.6 residues and is about 5.4 Å long. The amino acid proline produces a kink in the helical structure and often called as a helix breaker due to its rigid cyclic structure.

1. Linear sequence of aminoacids
2. Linear
3. Composed of peptide bonds formed between amino acids.
Secondary structure of Proteins:
The amino acids in the polypeptide chain forms highly regular shapes (sub-structures) through the hydrogen bond between the carbonyl oxygen (-C=O) and the neighbouring amine hydrogen (-NH) of the main chain. α-Helix and β-strands or sheets are two most common substructures formed by proteins.

β-Strand:
β-Strands are extended peptide chain rather than coiled. The hydrogen bonds occur between main chain carbonyl group one such strand and the amino group of the adjacent strand resulting in the formation of a sheet like structure. This arrangement is called β-sheets.

Watson & Crick proposed a 3-dimensional secondary structure of DNA. In this DNA molecule, Monomners of DNA are held together by Phosphodiester linkage. This linkages are occured in 5' & 3' carbon atoms of Pentose sugar.