The diagrammatic representation of position of genes and related distances between the adjacent genes is called genetic mapping.

After crossing over, chiasma starts to move towards the terminal end of chromatids. This is known as terminalization. As a result, complete separation of homologous chromosomes occurs.

Genes located close together on the same chromosome and inherited together are called linked genes.

Missense Mutation Non-sense Mutation The mutation where the codon for one amino acid is changed into a codon for another amino acid. The mutations where codon for one amino acid is changed into a termination or stop codon.

(i) Triticale (Hexaploid) (6x) is the first man made cereal.
(ii) It is obtained from a cross between tetraploid wheat Triticum durum and rye (diploid).

(iii) Triticale hybrid plants, have characteristics of both macroni wheat and rye.
(iv) They combine the high-protein content of wheat a high content of amino acid lysine of rye.

  
types of aneuploidy.

The diagrammatic representation of position of genes and related distances between the adjacent genes is called gene mapping. 
Uses 
(i) Used to determine gene order.
(i) Identify the locus of a gene.
(i) Calculate the distance between genes.
(i) Useful in predicting results of dihybrid and trihybrid crosses.
(i) Allows the geneticists to understand the overall genetic complexity of particular organism.

Mutations that result in the addition or deletion of a single base pair of DNA that changes the reading frame for the translation process as a result of which there is complete loss of normal protein structure and function are called Frameshift mutations.

Multiple alleles of a series always occupy the same locus in the homologous chromosome. Therefore, no crossing over occurs within the alleles of a series.
(i) Multiple alleles are always responsible for the same character.
(ii) The wild type alleles of a series exhibit dominant character whereas mutant type will influence dominance or an intermediate phenotypic effect.
(iii) Proterminal synapsis: Pairing starts from the telomeres
(iv) Random synapsis: Pairing may start from anywhere.

Pairing of homologous chromosomes during zygotene stage of prophase I of meiosis I is called synapsis. Synapsis of three types:
1. Procentric synapsis: Pairing starts from middle of the chromosome.
2. Proterminal synapsis: Pairing starts from the telomeres.
3. Random synapsis: Pairing may start from anywhere.

The two dominant alleles or recessive alleles occur in the same homologous chromosomes, tend to inherit together into same gamete are called coupling or cis configuration. If dominant or recessive alleles are present on two different, but homologous chromosomes they inherit apart into different gamete are called repulsion or trans configuration.