Wisdom teeth, Mammae in male, Body hair and Coccyx.

Structures which are similar in origin but perform different functions are called homologous structures that bring about divergent evolution.
Eg: Thorn of Bougainvillea is used for defense and tendrils of Cucurbita are used for climbing but both are homologous structures.

1. Hardy -Weinberg principle states that the  allele frequencies in a population are stable  and remain constant from generation to  generation it is called genetic equilibrium.
2. The sum total of all the allele frequencies is one and is represented by the equation.
p² + 2pq + q² = 1
Any change of frequency of alleles in a population in interpreted as resulting in evolution.
The factors that affect the genetic equilibrium are
1. Gene flow/migration
2. Genetic drift
3. Mutation
4. Genetic recombination

Objections to Darwinism: Some objections raised against Darwinism were -
(i) Darwin failed to explain the mechanism of variation.
(ii) Darwinism explains the survival of the fittest but not the arrival of the fittest.
(iii) He focused on small fluctuating variations that are mostly non-heritable.
(iv) He did not distinguish between somatic and germinal variations.
(v) He could not explain the occurrence of vestigial organs, over specialization of some organs like large tusks in extinct mammoths, oversized antlers in the extinct Irish deer, etc.,

1. Hugo de Vries by his experiment suggest that variations is caused due to mutation among the genetic sequence of an individual.
2. Hugo de vries for the first time gave the term saltation which stands for huge mutation in a single step resulting in speciation.
3. Darwin during his voyage in H.M.S. Beagle he found that living organism share similar features existed from million of years.
4. Evolution is a sequential process that leads to betterment of life forms to cope with change in environment and that is passed to successive generation called as natural selection.
5. Mutation is a random process and direction which is not specific.

Homo sapiens or modem human arose in Africa some 25,000 years ago and moved to other continents and developed into distinct races. They had a brain capacity of 1300 - 1600 cc. They started cultivating crops and domesticating animals.

It is the study of prehistoric life through fossils

They argued that external conditions stimulate the somatic cells to produce certain 'secretions' which reach the sex cells through the blood and bring about variations in the offspring.

(i) Neanderthal human was found in Neander Valley, Germany with a brain size of 1400 cc and lived between 34,000 - 1,00,000 years ago.
(ii) They differ from the modern. human in having semierect posture, flat cranium, sloping forehead, thin large orbits, heavy brow ridges, protruding jaws and no chin. 

(d) Both A & B are false

(a) A only

(d) Lamarck
Reason: He proposed use & disuse theory of evolution whereas the others are Neo Darwinists.

Atavism