Reduction: When reduced catalytically (or) by nascent hydrogen, they give secondary amines.
\(\underset { Methyl\quad isocyanide }{ { CH }_{ 3 }-NC+4[H] } \xrightarrow [ (or)Ni/{ H }_{ 2 } ]{ Na/{ C }_{ 2 }{ H }_{ 5 }OH } \underset { Dimethylamine }{ { CH }_{ 3 }-NH-{ CH }_{ 3 } } \)
 

Vinegar is 6 to 8% solution of acetic acid in water.

With oxygen it forms a toxic carbonyl chloride Hence it is not used an an anaesthetic.

On the basic of their source polymers are classified as
(i) Natural polymers (obtained from plants/ animals). E.g. Cellulose, Silk
(ii) Synthetic polymers (man made from chemicals) E.g. polythene, PVC, etc.,
Semisynthetic polymers (natural polymersmodified by chemical treatment)
E.g. viscose rayon, cellulose diacetate.

In the helical structure of DNA, the two strands are held together by hydrogen bonds between specific pair of bases. Cytosine forms hydrogen bond with guanine while adenine forms hydrogen bonds with thymine. As a result the two strands are complementary to each other.

The colloidal sol particles are continuously bombarded with the molecules of the dispersion medium and hence they follow a zigzag, random, continuous movement.

Anisole undergoes bromination with bromine in acetic acid even in the absence of a catalyst, para isomer is obtained as the major product.

(i) Acidic buffer solution: a solution containing a weak acid and its salt.
Example: Solution containing acetic acid and sodium acetate
(ii) Basic buffer solution: a solution containing a weak base and its salt.
Example: Solution containing NH₄OH and NH₄Cl.

Molar conductance = Λ_{m =} \( \frac{k\ (Sm^{-1})\times10^{-3}}{M} mol^{-1}m^{3} \)
\(= \frac{(12.04 \times 10^{-2} Sm^{-1}) \times 10^{-3} (mol^{-1}m^{3})} {0.025}\)
= 481.6 x 10^-5 Sm²mol^-1

The order of the reaction is zero.

(i) In the elements of 4^th, 5^th and 6^th period of the p-block the electrons present in the intervening d and f - orbitals do not shield the s-electrons of the valence shell effectively.
(ii) As a result, ns²-electons remains more tightly held by the nucleus and hence do not participate in bonding. This is called inert pair effect.

(i) Ni²⁺ (3d⁸) - has two unpaired electrons, promotion of d orbital by absorption of energy possible - shows colour.
(ii) Zn²⁺ (3d¹⁰) - has no unpaired electron, no promotion of d orbitals possible - shows white colour.

The coordination compounds with same formula, but have different connections among their constituent atoms are called structural isomers or constitutional isomers.

Magnetic moment (μ) = \(\sqrt { n(n+2) } \) BM
Fe (z = 26) = 1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s² 3p⁶ 4s² 3d⁶
Fe²⁺ = 1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s² 3p⁶ 3d⁶ 4s⁰

∴μ =  \(\sqrt { n(n+2) } \) = \(\sqrt { 4(4+2) } =\sqrt { 24 } \) 
= 4. 89 BM  

The oxidation states of 4d metals vary from +3 for Y to +8 for Ru and Os.
The highest oxidation state of 4d elements are found in their compounds with the higher electronegative elements like O, F & Cl.
Example: In RuO₄, OsO₄ & WCl₆
The oxidation state of Ru and Os is +8.
The oxidation state of W is +6.
Generally in going down a group, a stability of higher oxidation state increases while that of lower oxidation state decreases.
4d series (5^th period) - Yttrium to Cadmium (10 elements)

Addition of an alcoholic solution of dimethylglyoxime to an ammoniacal solution of Ni(II) gives rose - red precipitate Ni[ONCC N OH]₂ Nickel Cis (dimethylglyoximate)

(i) The Chalcogens belong to group (16).
(ii) The group consists of elements: Oxygen, Sulphur, Selenium, Tellurium and Polonium.
(iii) These are ore forming elements as most of the ores are oxides and sulphides.
(iv) Chalcos meaning 'ore formers'.

The reaction of CO with hydrogen at a pressure of less than 50 atm using metal catalysts at 500 - 700 K yields saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons.
\(nCO+(2n+1){ H_2 }\longrightarrow C_{ n }{ H }_{ (2n+2) }+{ nH }_{ 2 }O\)
\(nCO+2n{ H }_{ 2 }\longrightarrow { C }_{ n }{ H }_{ 2n }+{ nH }_{ 2 }O\)

In this extraction, a basic flux, quick lime (CaO) is used, since the silica gangue present in the ore is acidic in nature. The quick lime combines with it to form calcium silicate (slag).
CaO_(s) + Sio_2(s) ⟶ CaSio_3(s)
Flux       Gangue    Slag

(i) The step which has the lowest rate value among the other steps of the reaction is called as the rate determining step (or) rate limiting step: (or)
(ii) The overall rate of a reaction is controlled by the slowest step in a reaction called the rate determining step.
Example:
\(2 \mathrm{~A}+\mathrm{B} \rightarrow \mathrm{C}+\mathrm{D}\) going by two steps like,
\( \mathrm{A}+\mathrm{B} \stackrel{\mathrm{k}_{1}}{\longrightarrow} \mathrm{C}+\mathrm{Z}-(1) \text { Step }(\text { slow }) \)
\(Z+A \stackrel{k_{2}}{\longrightarrow} D-(2) \text { Step }(\text { fast }) \)
Over all reaction:  \(2 \mathrm{~A}+\mathrm{B} \rightarrow \mathrm{C}+\mathrm{D}\)
Here \(A+B \underset{\text { Slow }}{\stackrel{K_{1}}{\longrightarrow}} C+Z\), step is the rate determining step. For the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide catalysed by I^-.
2H₂O_2(aq)\(\rightarrow\) 2H₂O_(I) + O₂(g)
It is experimentally found that the reaction is first order with respect to both H₂,O₂, and I^-, which indicates that I^- is also involved in the reaction. The mechanism involves the following steps.
Step: 1
H₂O_2(aq)+I^-1_(aq) \(\rightarrow\) H₂O_(l)+OI^-1_(aq)
Step: 2
H₂O_2(aq)+OI^-1_(aq)\(\rightarrow\) H₂O + I^-_(aq) + O_(g)
Overall reaction is
2H₂O_2(aq) \(\rightarrow\) 2H₂O_(l) + O_2(g)
These two reactions are elementary reactions. Adding equation (1), and (2) gives the overall reaction. Step 1 is the rate determining step, since it involves both H₂,O₂ and I^-, the overall reaction is bimolecular.

[Co (en)₂ Cl₂]⁺ This is an octahedral complex

 +CO₂

(i) An acid is defined as a substance that has a tendency to donate a proton to another substance and base is a substance that has a tendency to accept a proton form other substance.
(ii) In other words, an acid is a proton donor and a base is a proton acceptor.
(iii) When hydrogen chloride is dissolved in water, it donates a proton to the later. Thus, HCI behaves as an acid and H₂O is base. The proton transfer from the acid to base can be represented as
HCI + H₂O ⇌ H₃O⁺ + Cl^-
(iv) When ammonia is dissolved in water, it accepts a proton from water. In this case, ammonia (NH₃) acts as a base and H₂O is acid. The reaction is represented as
H₂O + NH₃ ⇌ NH₄⁺ + OH^-
(v) Let us consider the reverse reaction following equilibrium.
\(\underset { proton\ donar\\ \quad \quad \ (acid) }{ HCl } +\underset { Proton\ acceptor\\ \quad \quad \quad \quad (base) }{ { H }_{ 2 }O } \leftrightharpoons \underset { Proton\ donar\\ \quad \quad \quad \quad \ (acid) }{ { H }_{ 2 }{ O }^{ + } } +\underset { Proton\ acceptor\\ \quad \quad \quad \quad \ (base) }{ { Cl }^{ - } } \) 
H₃O⁺ donates a proton to Cl^- to form HCI i.e., the products also behave as acid and base.
(vi) In general, Lowry - Bronsted (acid - base) reaction is represented as 
Acid₁ + Base₂ ⇌ Acid₂ + Base₁
(vii) The species that remains after the donation of a proton is a base (Base₁) and is called the conjugate base of the Bronsted acid (Acid₁). In other words, chemical species that differ only by a proton are called conjugate acid - base pairs.