dispersion medium-gas
dispersed phase-liquid

PbI_2(s) ⇌  Pb²⁺_(aq)  + 2I^-_(aq) 
K_sp = (s) (2s)²
3.2 × 10^-8 = 4s³
s = (3.2 × 10^-8/4)^1/3
= ( 8 x  10^-9)^1/3
= 2 x 10^-3 M

\(k=\frac { 2.303 }{ t } log\frac { \left[ { A }_{ 0 } \right] }{ \left[ A \right] } \)
\(k=\frac { 1 }{ t } ln \frac { \left[ { A }_{ 0 } \right] }{ \left[ A \right] } \)
\(e^{kt}=\frac { \left[ { A }_{ 0 } \right] }{ \left[ A \right] }\)
[A] = [A₀] e^kt
In this case
k = x min^-1 and [A₀]  = 0.01 M = 1 x 10^-2M
t = 1 hour = 60 min
[A] = (1 x 10^-2)e^-60x

Molecular formula: MSO₄Cl.6H₂O
Formation of white precipitate with Barium chloride indicates that SO^2-₄ ions are outside the coordination sphere, and no precipitate with AgNO₃ solution indicates that the Cl^- ions are inside the coordination sphere. Since the coordination number of M is 6.Cl^- and 5 H₂O are ligands, remaining 1 H₂O molecular and SO^2-₄ are in the outer coordination sphere.

The reciprocal of the resistance \((\frac{l}{R})\) gives the conductance of an electrolytic solution. The SI unit of conductance is Siemen (S).

\(\mathrm{Hg}_{2} \mathrm{Cl}_{2(\mathrm{~s})} \rightleftharpoons \mathrm{Hg}_{2}^{2+} \text { (aq) }+2 \mathrm{Cl^-}_{(\mathrm{aq})}\\ s \quad \quad \quad \quad \quad \quad s \quad \quad \quad \quad \quad 2s\)
\(\mathrm{K}_{\mathrm{sp}} =\left[\mathrm{Hg}_{2}^{2+}\right]{\left[\mathrm{Cl}^{-}\right]^{2}}  \)
\(=(\mathrm{s})(2 \mathrm{~s})^{2} \)
\(\mathrm{~K}_{\mathrm{sp}} =4 \mathrm{~s}^{3}\)

1. If \(\left[\mathrm{OH}^{-}\right]>1 \times 10^{-7} \mathrm{M}\), the solution is basic. \(2.5 \times 10^{-6} \mathrm{M}>1 \times 10^{-7} \mathrm{M}\)
2. \(\therefore\) The solution is basic.

Rate decreases with time as the reaction proceeds and the average rate cannot be used to predict the rate of the reaction at any instant. The rate of the reaction, at a particular instant during the reaction is called the instantaneous rate. So instantaneous rate in prepared over average rate.

(i) All the halogens have strong oxidising property due to their high electron affinity.
(ii) Fluorine is the strongest oxidising agent. It oxidises other halide ions into halogens in solution or when dry.
\({ F }_{ 2 }+{ 2X }^{ - }\longrightarrow { 2F }^{ - }+{ X }_{ 2 }\) (where X^- = Cl^-, Br^-, I^-)

(i) The end product of both the processes is oxide of metal.
(ii) Volatile impurities are removed from the ore and surface area for the further reaction increases.

Tetrahedral, paramagnetic.

The imperfection occurs due to missing atoms, displaced atoms or extra atoms, is named as a point defect. Such defects arise due to imperfect packing during the original crystallisation or they may arise from thermal vibrations of atoms at elevated temperatures.

(i) Zeolites are three-dimensional crystalline solids containing Al, Si and O in their regular three dimensional framework.
(ii) They are hydrated sodium alumino silicates with general formula Na₂O(AI₂O₃).·x(SiO₂)·yH₂O
(x = 2 to 10; y = 2 to 6).
(iii) Zeolites have porous structure in which the monovalent sodium ions and water molecules are loosely held.
(iv) The Si and Al atoms are tetrahedrally coordinated with each other through shared oxygen atoms.
(v) Zeolites are similar to clay minerals but they differ in their crystalline structure.
(vi) Zeolites have a three dimensional crystalline structure looks like a honeycomb consisting of a network of interconnected tunnels and cages.
(vii) Water molecules moves freely in and out of these pores but the zeolite framework remains rigid
(viii) Another special aspect of this structure is that the pore/channel sizes are nearly uniform, allowing the crystal to act as a molecular sieve.

Catenation is an ability of an element to form chain of atoms.
The conditions for catenation.
(a) The valency of element is greater than or equal to two.
(b) Element should have an ability to bond with itself
(c) The self bond must be as strong as Its bond with other elements
(d) Kinetic inertness of catenated compound towards other molecules.
(e) Carbon possesses all the above properties and forms a wide range of compounds with itself and with other elements such as H, O, N, S and halogens.

(i) 
(ii) 
(iii) 
(iv) 

(i) Antioxidants are substances which retard the oxidative deteriorations of food.
(ii) Food containing fats and oils is easily oxidised and turn rancid.
(iii) To prevent the oxidation of the fats and oils, chemical BHT(butylhydroxy toluene), BHA(Butylated hydroxy anisole) are added as food additives.
(iv) They are generally called antioxidants. These materials readily undergo oxidation by reacting with free radicals generated by the oxidation of oils, thereby stop the chain reaction of oxidation of food.

At aqueous solution, the proton from carboxyl group can be transferred to the amino group of an amino acid leaving these groups with opposite charges. Despite having both positive and negative charges, this molecule is neutral and has amphoteric behaviour. These ions are called zwitter ions.

Zwitter ions behave as neutral molecules at pH isoelectric point.

(i) Oxidation occurs at anode:

(ii) Reduction occurs at cathode:

(iii) Overall reaction:
\({ Zn }_{ (s) }+{ HgO }_{ (s) }\rightarrow { ZnO }_{ (s) }+Hg(l)\)
(iv) Cell emf: about 1.35V.

Yes, we can use nucleophiles such as NH₃, CH₃O^- for the nucleophilic substitution of alcohol.
Example
\(\mathrm{C}_{2} \mathrm{H}_{5} \mathrm{OH}+\mathrm{NH}_{3} \rightarrow \mathrm{C}_{2} \mathrm{H}_{5} \mathrm{NH}_{2}+\mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O} \)
\(\mathrm{C}_{2} \mathrm{H}_{5} \mathrm{OH}+\mathrm{CH}_{2} \mathrm{~N}_{2} \rightarrow \mathrm{C}_{2} \mathrm{H}_{5} \mathrm{OCH}_{3}+\mathrm{N}_{2}\)

i) Cr² + 2e^- ⟶ Cr
ii) Mn²⁺ + 2e^- ⟶ Mn
iii) Fe²⁺ + 2e^- ⟶ Fe
iv) CO²⁺ + 2e^- ⟶ Co

(i) In this method, the ore is treated with aqueous alkali to form a soluble complex.
(ii) Bauxite, an important ore of aluminum is heated with a solution of sodium hydroxide or sodium carbonate in the temperature range 470 - 520 K at 35 atm to form soluble sodium meta-aluminate leaving behind the impurities, iron oxide and titanium oxide.
\({ Al }_{ 2 }{ O }_{ 3(s) }+2NaO{ H }_{ (aq) }+3{ H }_{ 2 }{ O }_{ (l) }\longrightarrow 2Na[Al({ OH })_{ 4 }]_{ (aq) }\)
(iii) The hot solution is decanted, cooled, and diluted. This solution is neutralised by passing CO₂ gas, to the form hydrated Al₂O₃ precipitate
\(2Na\left[ Al\left( OH \right) _{ 4 } \right] _{ (aq) }+{ CO }_{ 2(g) }\longrightarrow { Al }_{ 2 }{ { O }_{ 3 }.x{ H }_{ 2 }O_{ (s) }+2NaHCO_{ 3(aq) } }\)
(iii) The precipitate is filtered off and heated around 1670 K to get pure alumina Al₂O₃

\(\mathrm{k}=0.693 / \mathrm{t}_{1 / 2}\)
\(\mathrm{k}=\frac{0.693}{8.0}=0.08 \mathrm{~min}^{-1}\)
For the first order reaction:
\(t =\frac{2.303}{k} \log \frac{\left[A_{0}\right]}{[A]}  \)
\(t =\frac{2.303}{0.087} \log \left(\frac{100}{1}\right)=26.47 \log 10^{2}  \)
\(t =2 \times 26.47 \log 10  \)
\(t =52.94 \mathrm{~min}\)

(i) Compound A is Toluene (C₆H₅CH₃).
(ii) When toluene is treated with air in the presence of V₂O₅ at 773K. It gives compound B benzaldehyde (C₆H₅CHO).
\({ C }_{ 6 }{ H }_{ 5 }{ CH }_{ 3 }\overset { (O) }{ \underset { air/{ v }_{ 2 }{ O }_{ 5 }\\ \quad 773k }{ \longrightarrow } } { C }_{ 6 }{ H }_{ 5 }CHO+{ H }_{ 2 }O\) 
(iii) Alkaline KMnO₄ oxidises Benzaldehyde (B) to Benzoic acid (C).
\({ C }_{ 6 }{ H }_{ 5 }CHO\overset { \left( O \right) }{ \longrightarrow } { C }_{ 6 }{ H }_{ 5 }COOH\\ \quad (B) \quad \quad \quad \quad \quad \quad (C)\) 
(iv) Benzaldehyde (B) on treatment with N₂H₄ and KOH gives compound A toluene.
\(\underset {(B)}{{ C }_{ 6 }{ H }_{ 5 }}CHO\underset { { N }_{ 2 }{ H }_{ 4 }/KOH }{ \longrightarrow } \underset{(C)}{{ C }_{ 6 }{ H }_{ 5 }{ CH }_{ 3 }}\)

Helmholtz double layer:
(i) The surface of colloidal particle adsorbs one type of ion due to preferential adsorption.
(ii) This layer attracts the oppositely charged < ions in the medium and hence at the boundary separating the two electrical double layers are setup.
(iii) This is called as Helmholtz electrical double layer.
(iv) As the particies nearby are having similar: charges, they cannot come close and condense.

(i) Zeolites are microporous, crystalline, hydrated, alumino silicates, made of silicon and aluminium tetrahedra.
(ii) There are about 50 natural zeolites and 150 synthetic zeolites.
(iii) As silicon is tetravalent and aluminium is trivalent, the zeolite matrix carries extra negative charge.
(iv) To balance the negative charge, there are extra framework cations for example H⁺or Na⁺ons. Zeolites carrying protons are used as solid acids, catalysis and they are extensively used in the petrochemical industry for cracking heavy hydrocarbon fractions into gasoline, diesel, etc.,
(v) Zeolites carrying Na⁺ ions are used as basic catalysis.
(vi) One of the most important applications of zeolites is their shape selectivity.
(vii) In zeolites, the active sites namely protons are lying inside their pores. So, reactions occur only inside the pores of zeolites.
Reactant selectivity:
When bulkier molecules in a reactant mixture are prevented from reaching the active sites within the zeolite crystal, this selectivity is called reactant shape selectivity.
Transition state selectivity:
If the transition state of a reaction is large compared to the pore size of the zeolite, then no product will be formed.
Product selectivity:
It is encountered when certain product molecules one too big to diffuse out of the zeolite pores.

The heavier transition elements belong to fourth (4d), fifth (Sd) and sixth (6d) transition series. Their properties are expected to be different form the elements belonging to the first (3d) series due to the following reasons.
(i) Atomic radii: Size of the transition elements 94d and Sd series are larger than those of the corresponding elements of the first transition series though those of 4d and Sd series are very close to each other.
(ii) Ionisation enthalpy of Sd series are higher than the corresponding elements of 3d and 4d series.
(iii) Atomisation enthalpy of 4d and Sd series are higher than the corresponding elements of the first series.
(iv) Melting and boiling points of heavier transition elements are greater than those of the first transition series due to stronger intermetallic bonding.
(v) The elements of the first transition series generally form low or high spin complexes, depending upon the higher of ligand field. However, the heavier transition elements form low spin complexes irrespective of the strength of the ligand filed.

(i) Stability of higher oxidation state decreases down the group from S to Te because stability of lower oxidation state increases down the group from S to Te.
(ii) Fluorine and oxygen are most electronegative and very reactive. So they can ionised noble gases and form compounds.

(i) Solids have definite volume and shape 
(ii) Solids are rigid and incompressible
(iii) Solids have strong cohesive forces.
(iv) Their constituents have fixed positions and can only oscillate about their mean positions.

(i) It exhibits both geometrical and optical isomerism
(a) Geometrical isomers:

(b) Optical isomers:

(ii) It shows two optical isomers

(iii) Ionisation isomers
Linkage isomers
[Co(NH₃)₅(NO₂)(NO₃)₂], [CO(NH₃)₅ (ONO)](NO₃)₂
(iv) Geometrical isomers