Secretary has to discharge non-statutory functions in relation to directors, shareholders and office and staff. These functions are briefly mentioned.
(a) Functions as an agent of directors;
(b Functions towards shareholders;
(c) Functions towards office and staff.
(i) Functions in Relation to Directors: A company secretary acts under the full control of the board of directors and carries out the instructions of the directors. The secretary provides necessary advice and information to the board to formulate company policy and arrive at decisions.
(ii) Functions in Relation to Shareholders: The company secretary must serve in the best interests of the shareholders.
(iii) Functions in Relation to Office and Staff: The Secretary is the kingpin of the whole corporate machinery. He is responsible for the smooth functioning of the office work. He exercises overall supervision, control, and coordination of all clerical activities in the office.

General provisions relating to the appointment of directors
(i) Every director should be appointed by the company in general meeting as per the provision of the Act.
(ii) Director Identification Number is compulsory for the appointment of a director of a company.
(iii) Every person proposed to be appointed as a director shall furnish his Director Identification Number and a declaration that he is not disqualified to become a director under the Act.
(iv) A person appointed as a director should give his consent to hold the office of director in physical form on or before his appointment i.e., Consent to act as a director of a company.
(v) A company should file Form with the Registrar of Companies mentioning particulars of appointment of directors and Key Managerial Persons along with A the Consent form signed by Directors, as an attachment within 30 days of the appointment of a director with necessary fee.
(vi) Articles of the Company may provide the provisions relating to the retirement of all directors.

The earliest business associations in England were the "Merchant Guilds". Some of the merchant Associations or guilds who have regulated the companies.
(i) A Royal Charter established the East India Company in the year 1600.
(ii) In England, the Joint Stock Companies Act was passed for the first time in 1844.
(iii) In the year 1850, taking the English Joint Stock Companies Act 1844 as a base, a provision was made for registration of joint stock companies in India.
(iv) The Joint Stock Companies Act was passed in India by introducing the concept of limited liability in the year 1857.
(v) In 1913, the Indian Companies Act of 1913 was passed. The Act introduces the institution of private companies in the corporate sector in India. After Independence. Based on the recommendation of the Shri. H. C. Baba committee in 1950 and the provisions of the English Companies Act 1948, the Companies Act 1956 was introduced in the parliament.

(i) Pure Entrepreneur:
(a) Pure entrepreneurs are individuals who are propelled to enter into the venture by psychological and economic motives.
(b) They apply their knowledge, skill, and insight in making the venture a great success in order to earn maximum profit out of the venture.
(ii) Induced Entrepreneur:
(a) An induced entrepreneur is one who is inspired to take up entrepreneurial activity thanks to entrepreneurship-friendly policies put in place by the Government.
(b) The government provides a great deal of support in the form of loans, subsidies, the nominal rate of interest, tax breaks, tax holidays, training, import of technology from abroad, concessions for the export-oriented item, allotment of sheds, and lands at subsidised price etc.
(iii) Motivated Entrepreneur:
(a) Motivated entrepreneurs are those motivated to take up venture by the desire for self-fulfilment.
(b) They are motivated to produce and market product or service by the sheer prospect of making a huge profit.
(iv) Spontaneous Entrepreneur:
(a) These entrepreneurs have natural inclination to start a venture.
(b) They are supposed to be bold, optimistic and enterprising persons. They have a passion for meeting the challenges.

(i) Employee referral: The existing employees of the organisation may recommend some of their relatives or known people who will be suitable for the existing vacancies.
(ii) Government/Public Employment Exchanges: These are exchanges established by Government which facilitates recruitment throughout the country.
(iii) Private Employment Agencies: These are similar to Public employment exchanges except that the ownership is the hands of private parties.
(iv) Employment consultancies: These types of firms facilitate recruitment on behalf of client companies at cost.
(v) Professional associations: Organisations seeking applicants of high calibre and repute with technical knowledge approach professional associations like Institute of chartered accountants, The Indian Medial association and All India Management Association etc.
(vi) Deputation: A person who is already an employee of an organisation can be deputed for a specific job for a specified period as a short term solutions.
(vii) Labour contractors: Organisations recruit unskilled and manual labourers through these contractors.

(i) Regulation of Stock Exchanges
The first objective of SEBI is to regulate stock exchanges so that efficient services may be provided to all the parties operating there.
(ii) Protection to the Investors
(a) The capital market is meaningless in the absence of the investors.
(b) The protection of the interests of the investors means protecting them from the wrong information given by the companies in their prospectus, reducing the risk of delivery and payment, etc.
(iii) Checking the Insider Trading
(a) Insider trading means the buying and selling of securities by directors Promoters, etc.
(b) Who have access to some confidential information about the company and who wish to take advantage of this confidential information.
(c) This affects the interests of the general investors and is essential to check this tendency.
(iv) Control over Brokers
(a) It is important to supervise/ check the activities of the brokers and other middlemen in order to control the capital market.
(b) To regulate their activities, it was necessary to establish the SEBI.

Speculators in a stock market are of different types. They carry their names depending on their motive of trading in the stock exchange. Types of speculators are as follows:
(i) Bull:
(a) A Bull or Tejiwala is an operator who expects a rise in prices of securities in the future.
(b) He is called bull because just like a bull tends to throw his victim up in the air, the bull speculator stimulates the price to rise.
(c) He is an optimistic speculator.
(ii) Bear:
(a) A bear or Mandiwala speculator expects prices to fall in future and sells securities at present with a view to purchase them at lower prices in future.
(b) A bear usually presses its victim down to ground.
(c) A bear is a pessimistic speculator.
(iii) Stag:
(a) A stag is a cautious speculator in the stock exchange.
(b) He selects those companies whose shares are in more demand and are likely to carry a premium.
(c) He sells the shares before being called to pay the allotment money. He is also called a premium hunter.
(iv) Lame Duck:
(a) When a bear finds it difficult to fulfill his commitment, he is said to be struggling like a lame duck.
(b) A bear speculator contracts to sell I securities at a later date.
(c) On the appointed time he is not able to get the securities as the holders are not willing to part with them.

Forms of Privatization:
(i) Contraction (minimisation) of public sectors: The number of industries reserved for public sector was reduced from 17 (as per 1956 policy) to only 8 industries viz, Arms and Ammunition, Atomic Energy, Coal and Lignite, Mineral oils, Mining of ores, Mining of copper, lead, zinc etc., Minerals for atomic energy and Railways.
(ii) Sales of shares of public sectors to the private sector: Indian Govt. started selling shares of PSUs to public and financial institution. Now the private sector will acquire ownership of these PSU's.
(iii) Memorandum of Undersatanding: MOU system was introduced in 1991to raise the productivity and performances of PSUs. It strengthens the relationship between PSUs and administrative departments.
(iv) Disinvestment in PSUs: The Govt has started the process of disinvestment in those PSUs which had been running into loss. It means that Govt. has been selling out these industries to private sector. So disinvestment is a system of privatizing government enterprises.

Tata has always been values-driven. These values continue to direct the growth and business of Tata companies. The five core Tata values underpinning the way we do business are:
(i) Integrity: We will be fair, honest, transparent and ethical in our conduct; everything we do must stand the test of public scrutiny.
(ii) Excellence: We will be passionate about achieving the highest standards of quality, always promoting meritocracy.
(iii) Unity: We will invest in our people and partners, enable continuous learning, and build caring and collaborative relationships based on trust and mutual respect.
(iv) Resonsibility : We will integrate environmental and social principles in our businesses, ensuring that what comes from the people goes back to the people many times over.
(v) Pioneering: We will be bold and agile, courageously taking on challenges, using deep customer insight to develop innovative solutions.
(vi) Mission: To improve the quality of life of the communities we serve globally through long-term stakeholder value creation based on Leadership with Trust.

(i) Coachin Method: In the coaching method of training, the superior teaches or guides the new employee about the knowledge and skills relevant to a given job. In this method superior plays the role of coach or guide and an instructor.
ii) Mentoring method : Mentoring is the process of sharing knowledge and experience of an employee. Mentoring is always done by senior person, it is also one-to-one interaction, like coaching. It is mostly used for managerial employees.
(iii) Job Rotation Method : Job rotation is an important method for broadening the knowledge of executives. Under this method, a trainee is periodically shifted from one work to another work and from one department / division to another department / division for a particular period of time.
(iv) Job Instruction Techniques : In this method, a trainer superior gives some instructions to an employees to how to perform his job and its purpose.
(v) Apprenticeship Training Method : The apprentice or trainee learns the job knowledge and skills from the trainer or superior or senior worker. Generally, the apprenticeship training is given to , the technical cader like that Mechanics, Electricians, Craftsmen, Welders, Fitter etc.

(i) Good Talent:
Proper selection system enables the organization to appoint talented persons for various activities and thereby leading to improved productivity and profitability of the organisation.
(ii) Better Eficiency :
Selection of right person to the right job is sure to produce better quality of work and may facilitate faster achievement of objectives. This will help in greater measure to tone up the overall efficiency of organisation.
(iii) Reduced Cost of Trainning and Development : 
Better selection of candidates definitely reduces the cost of training because qualified personnel have better grasping power.
If they select suitable candidates for suitable job. they can easily understand the techniques of the work better in quick time.
Besides, the organization can develop different training programmes for different persons on the basis of their individual differences. thus reducing the time and cost of training considerably.
(iv) Reduced Turnover :
Proper selection of candidates contributes to low labour turnover. This will inturn help the organisation to minimize recruitment cost.
(v) Job motivtion:
If the right person is selected for the right job, it tends to motivate the person to work more effectively and efficiently.
They feel that their skills are properly used and they tend to contribute more attention to the job.
(vi) Other Benifits:
Proper selection of candidates reduces absenteeism.
They would pay better attention to their jobs and take safety precautions on their own accord would minimize the occurance of work place accidents.

(i) Numerical Reasoning Test : Numerical reasoning test provides information about candidate's numerical aptitude.
(ii) Verbal Reasoning Test: It measures the candidate's ability to comprehend the written text and ability to arrive at factual conclusion from the written test.
(iii) Inductive Reasoning Test: Inductive test is one of the psychometric tests conducted in the selection process to measure the problem solving abilities and ability to apply logical reasoning.
(iv) Mechanical Reasoning Test: This test measures the engineering student's ability to apply engineering concepts in actual practice.
(v) Diagrammatic Reasoning Test : This test measures the candidate's ability to understand the shapes, abstract ideas and ability to observe and extract values from illustrations and apply them to new samples.
(vi) Spatial Reasoning Test : The test measures the candi ate's ability to clearly manipulate and remember the shapes, still images, and find out pattern which govern the sequence

Kinds of Meetings : Under the companies Act 2013, company meetings can be classified as under :
1. Meetings of Shareholders
      (a) Statutory Meeting
      (b) Annual General Meetings
      (c) Extraordinary General Meetings
2. Meetings of the Directors
      (a) Board meetings
      (b) Committee meetings
3. Special Meetings
      (a) Class Meetings
      (b) Creditors and of Debenture / bond holders meetings
1. Shareholders meetings :
The meeting held with the shareholders of the company is called shareholders meeting. The shareholders meeting can be classified as statutory meeting, annual general meeting and extra ordinary general meeting.
2. Meeting of the Board of Directors :
Since the administration of the company lies in the hands of the board of directors, they should meet frequently for the propper conduct of the business and to decide policy matters of the company.
3. Special Meetings :
(i) Class Meetings : Meetings, which are held by a particular class of share or debenture holders e.g. preference shareholders or debenture holders meetings is known as class meeting.
(ii) Meetings of the Creditors : Strictly speaking, these are not meetings of a company. lt is the meeting which are held by the creditors.

(i) As regards to the qualification of directors, there is no direct provision in the Companies Act, 2013.
(ii) In general, a director shall possess appropriate skills, experience and knowledge in one or more fields of finance, law, management, sales, marketing, administration, research, corporate governance, technical operations or other disciplines related to the company's business.
(iii) According to the different provisions relating to the directors; the following qualifications may be mentioned:
(a) A director must be a person of sound mind.
(b) A director must hold share qualification, if the articles of association provides such.
(c) A director must be an individual.
(d) A director should be a solvent person.
(e) A director should not be convicted by the court for any offence, etc.

As per section 11 of the Act, a company having share capital should file with the Registrar, declaration stating that
(i) Every subscriber to the Memorandum has paid the value of shares agreed to be taken by him.
(ii) Paidup capital is not less than Rs.5 lakhs in the case of a public limited company and Rs.1 lakh in the case of private limited company.
(iii) It has filed the Registrar the verification of the registered office.
These restrictions in section 11 are applicable to companies having share capital. It can commence business only after fulfilling all the formalities mentioned above and exercise borrowing powers immediately after incorporation.

(i) Short-term Funds:
It is a market purely for short-term funds or financial assets called near money.
(ii) Maturity Period:
It deals with financial assets having a maturity period upto one year only.
(iii) Conversion of Cash :
It deals with only those assets which can be converted into cash readily without loss and with minimum transaction cost.
(iv) No Formal Place:
Generally, transactions take place through phone i.e., oral communication.Relevant documents and written communications can be exchanged subsequently.
(v) Sub-markets :
It is not a single homogeneous market. It comprises of several sub-markets each specialising in a particular type of financing. 
(vi) Role of Market :
The components of a money market are the Central Banks, Commercial Banks, Non-Banking Financial Companies,Discount Houses and Acceptance House.Commercial banks generally plays a dominant role in this market.
 

The financial market two functions:
I. Intermediary Functions
II. Financial Functions
I. Intermediary Functions: The intermediary functions of a financial market include the following
(i) Transfer of resources: Financial markets facilitate the transfer of real economic resource from lenders to ultimate borrowers.
(ii) Enhancing Income: Financial markets allow lenders earn interest / dividend on their surplus investible funds and thus contributing to the enhancement of the individual and the national income.
(iii) Productive Usage: Financial markets allow for the productive use of the funds borrowed, thus enhancing the income and the gross national income
(iv) Capital Formation: Financial markets provide a channel through which new savings flow to aid capital formation of a country
(v) Price determination: 
1. Financial markets allow for the determination of the price of the traded financial asset through the interaction of buyers and sellers.
2. (ii) They provide a signal for the allocation of funds in the economy, based on the demand and supply; through the mechanism called price discovery process.
(vi) Sale mechanism: Financial market provides a mechanism for selling of a financial asset by investor so as to offer the benefits of marketability and liquidity of such assets.
(vii) Information: The activities of the participants in the financial market result in the generation and the consequent dissemination of information to the various segments of the markets, so as to reduce the cost of transaction of financial assets.
II. Financial Functions
1. The financial functions of a financial market include the following
(i) Providing the borrowers with funds so as to enable them to carry out their investment Plans.
(ii) Providing the lenders with earning assets so as to enable them to earn wealth by deploying the assets in productive ventures.
(iii) Providing liquidity in the market so as to facilitate trading of funds

(i) The main disadvantage of MBE is, only managers have the power over really important decisions, which can be demotivating for employees at a lower level
(ii) Furthermore, it takes time to pass the issues to managers.
(iii) Managing employees who deviate from the normal procedures.
(iv) Because of compliance failures are considered difficult to manage and typically find themselves with limited job duties and ultimately dismissed / terminated.

There are five parts of management as a process
1. Management is Co-ordination:
(i) The manager of an enterprise must effectively co-ordinate all activities and resources of the organisation.
(ii) Namely, Men, Machines, Materials and Money the Four M's of Management.
2. Management is a Process :
(i) The manager achieves proper co-ordination of resources by means of the managerial functions.
(ii) Planning, Organising, Staffing, Directing (or leading and motivating) and controlling.
3. Management is a Purposive Process:
(i) It is directed toward the achievement of predetermined goals or objectives.
(ii) Without an objective, we have no destination to reach or a path to follow to arrive at our destination
(ii) Example; A goal, both management and organisation must be purposive or goal-oriented.
4.  Management is a Social purpose:
It is the art of getting things done through other people.
5. Management is a Cyclical Process:
It represents planning action-control-re-planning cycle. (i.e.,) an ongoing process to attain the planned goals