1. Intellectuals played a key role in preparing the soil for the outbreak of the French Revolution
2. The writings of Voltaire and Rousseau acted as an impetus to the revolution.
3. Montesquieu, argued for the division of power among the legislative, executive and judiciary.
4. Rousseau, argued that the relationship between the rulers and ruled should be bound by a contract.

1. America's entry with its enormous resources made Allied victory a foregone conclusion.
2. The first to surrender was Bulgaria.
3. The Turks opted for an armistice.
4. Germany was now left with the impossible task of carrying on the struggle alone.

1. SEATO is seen as an Asian-Pacific version of NATO.
2. Interestingly only two south-east Asian countries, the Philippines and Thailand, had taken up membership and the rest of the countries refused to be part of it.
3. The alliance was headquartered at Bangkok. SEATO existed only for consultation, leaving each individual nation to react individually to internal threats. SEATO was not as popular as NATO.
4. With the end of Vietnam War, SEATO was disbanded in 1977.

North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO)
1. Despite the friendship of the United States, Western European countries It insecure.
2. Communist victory in Czechoslovakia added to their fears.
3. The Western European countries were now willing to consider a collective security solution.
4. The representatives of Great Britain, France, Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg met in Brussels and signed a treaty in March 1948 which provided for military, political, economic and cultural collaboration.
5. After some time USA, Italy, Canada, Iceland, Denmark, Norway, Ireland and Portugal joined the five Brussels Treaty Powers resulting in the formation of NATO. Under NATO, all the member states agreed to regard an attack on any one of them as an attack on all of them and placed their defence forces under a joint NATO Command Organisation.

(i) The most negative result of the Commercial Revolution was the revival of slavery. Slavery had virtually disappeared from European society by the end of the first millennium.
(ii) But the development of mining and plantation farming in the Spanish, Portuguese and English colonies led to the recruitment of slaves as unskilled labourers.
(iii) The attempt to enslave native Americans ended in failure, as they proved too tough to manage. The problem was solved by importing Africans.
(iv) This transatlantic slave trade that exported more than 11 million Africans to the Americas is a sordid story that is a shame on the making of the modem world.

(i) John Cabot, an Itali are explorer saw the Canada and made it an English colony.
(ii) Giovanni da Verrazano, another Italian, explored the lands for the French.
(iii) He annexed provinces for the French in eastern Canada.
(iv) An English explorer named Henry Hudson wanted to find the passage from North America to the Pacific Ocean.

1. The Holy Roman Empire' was an empire only in name.
2. Germany contained three of four hundred separate States.
3. It was their kings who saved these countries from feudal anarchy and made them into nations.
4. Conditions suitable for the rise of Italy and Germany as nation states developed only in the nineteenth century.

1. Europe in the nineteenth century was influenced by the developments in France.
2. Metternich was the one who sought to suppress the spirit of democracy and nationalism that arose in Europe.
3. He said, ''When France sneezes, Europe catches a cold".
4. France sneezed not once, but thrice in 1789, 1830 and 1848, when revolutions broke out in France.

1. Sun Yat-sen founded a political party in Tokyo, which became the Kuomintang Party.
2. Sun Yat-sen, the inspirer of the organisation, wanted a republic china.
3. After the death of Sun Yat-sen, the Kuomintang did not adopt Communist policies.
4. The Kuomintang represented the interests of the landlords and capitalists.

1. The Philippine Communist peasants were called Huk.
2. Huk areas were bombarded by government forces and, as a result, the huk resorted to guerrilla warfare.
3. At first they adopted it as a defensive posture.
4. The ''Hukrebellion'' had been crushed by the Philippine government, assisted by the U.S.

1. Hitler thought Stalingrad would be a prize catch, as it was a large industrial city.
2. He was also aiming for the rich oil fields of the Caucasus.
3. In addition, seizing the city that bore the name of the Soviet leader Joseph Stalin would add further glory to the image of Hitler.
4. It became clear that the German Army could not hold Stalingrad.
5. Yet Hitler refused to allow a strategic withdrawal.

1) Under this arrangement all important subjects like law and order and finance 'reserved' for the white men and were directly under the control of the Governors.
2) Other subjects such as health, educations and local self-government were 'transferred' to elected Indian representatives.
3) Ministers holding 'transferred subjects were responsible to the legislatures; but those in charge of 'reserved' subjects were not further the Governor of the province could overrule the ministers under' special (veto) powers,' thus making a mockery of the entire scheme.
4) The part dealing with central legislature in the act created two houses of legislature (bi-cameral).

1) The Ghadar Movement was an important episode in India's freedom struggle.
2) A ship named Komagatamaru, filled with Indian immigrants was turned back from Canada. As the ship returned to India several of its passengers were killed or arrested in a clash with the British police.
3) This incident left a deep mark on the Indian nationalist movement.

1) The local public, angered over the arrest of the prominent swadeshi leaders, reacted violently. Shops were closed in a general show of defiance.
2) The municipality building and the police station in Tirunelveli were set on fire. More importantly, the mill workers came out in large numbers to protest the arrest of swadeshi leaders.
3) After a few incidents of confrontation with the protesting crowd, the police open fired and four people were killed.
4) On 7 July 1908, V.O.C and Subramania Siva were found guilty and imprisoned on charges of sedition.
5) Siva was awarded a sentence of 10 years of transportation for his seditious speech whereas v.o.c got a life term (20 years) for abetting him. V.O.C was given another life sentence for his own seditious speech.

1) The MNA petition was discussed in the Parliament in March 1853. H.D. Seymour, Chairman of the Indian Reform Society, came to Madras in October 1853.
2) He visited places like Guntur, Cuddalore, Tiruchirappalli, Salem and Tirunelveli.
3) However, as the Charter Act of 1853 allowed British East India Company to continue its rule in India, the MNA organised an agitation for the transfer of British territories in India to the direct control of the Crown.
4) MNA sent its second petition to British Parliament, signed by fourteen thousand individuals, pleading the termination of Company rule in India.

1) M. Singaravelu (18 February 1860 11 February 1946), was born in Madras.
2) He was an early Buddhist, and like many other communist leaders, he was also associated with Indian National Congress initially. However, after sometime he chose a radical path.
3) Along with Thiru. V. Kalyanasundaram, he organised many trade unions in South India.
4) On 1 May 1923, he organised the first ever celebration of May Day in the country.
5) He was one of the main organisers of the strike in South Indian Railways (Golden Rock, Tiruchirappalli) in 1928 and was prosecuted for that.

1) The objectives of this socialist pattern of development were: the reduction of inequalities, elimination of exploitation, and prevention of concentration of wealth.
2) Social justice meant that all citizens would have an equal opportunity to education and employment.
3) This essentially entailed the active participation of the state in the process of development.

This process and the commitment of the leaders of independent India to the concerns of the people of Kashmir led the Constituent Assembly to provide for autonomous status to the State of Jammu and Kashmir under Article 370 of the Constitution.

(i) The task of integrating the Princely States into the Indian Union is known as Instrument of Accession.
(ii) Instrument of Accession: A legal document, introduced in Government of India Act, 1935, which was later used in the context of Partition enabling Indian rulers to accede their state to either India or Pakistan.

Separate electorates are usually demanded by minorities who feel it would otherwise be difficult for them to get fair representation in government. For example, separate electorate for Muslims means that Muslims will choose their separate leader by separate elections for Muslims.