(i) The French king Charles VII was helped by Joan of Are, a young girl who fought courageously and won the battle at Orleans. Joan of Arc was given the title Maid of Orleans.
(ii) However, she was captured by the English and tried by the court for her claim that she was guided by heavenly voices. She was condemned as a witch and burnt at the stakes in 1430.

(i) Holy Communion (also known as the Eucharist) is a religious ceremony performed in church by Catholics.
(ii) Catholic Christians partake of Holy Communion in remembrance of the sacrifices made by Jesus.
(iii) They accept bread and wine which are believed to symbolise (transubstantiation) the body and blood of Jesus Christ.

1. The pope tried to hold peace talks with Luther by calling him for Diet of Worms. If failed.
2. The Diet of Worms disavowed his books and burnt them.
3. He was outlawed from the Holy Roman Empire by the emperor. Martin Luther's radical views influenced many and one such was Thomas Muntzer who fought for a classless society.
4. This started the Peasant's Rebelling in parts of Germany. However, Luther supported the feudal lords in this fight and denounced the peasant movement.

1. The discovery of the sea route to Americas by Columbus and the conquest of Inca and Aztec empires by the Spaniards brought enormous wealth.
2. This made Spain prosperous, and it began to play a leading part in European politics.

1. Erasmus was a protester of many church practices and teachings.
2. His well known work, the praise of folly (1511), made fun of theologians and monks.

(i) Cabral sailed to India, following the route of Vasco da Gama, and reached Kozhikode.
(ii) The zamorin ruler allowed Cabral to build a fort and carry on trade.
(iii) He then left for Cochin, further south, where he was warmly received.
(iv) After establishing a port at Cannanore Cabral returned with six shiploads of spices to Portugal.

(i) It used education as a tool to teach the Catholic religion to the masses.
(ii) They set up various educational institutions to promote the Catholic religion.
(iii) Society of Jesus succeeded in producing efficient and faithful followers of the Church.
(iv) The Jesuits, helped in raising the standard of the Church in Europe.

(i) A French Protestant he opposed the activities of the Church.
(ii) He was excommunicated for fighting the Pope. After his excommunication, he settled In Geneva, Switzerland.
(iii) His book titled 'Institutes of the Christian Religion' in Latin contains his core ideas.
(iv) Calvin was a great organiser and for a while he controlled the

(i) John Cabot, an Itali are explorer saw the Canada and made it an English colony.
(ii) Giovanni da Verrazano, another Italian, explored the lands for the French.
(iii) He annexed provinces for the French in eastern Canada.
(iv) An English explorer named Henry Hudson wanted to find the passage from North America to the Pacific Ocean.

(i) Italians preserved the belief that they were descendants of the ancient Romans.
(ii) They looked back upon their ancestry with pride.
(iii) Italy had a more secular culture than most other parts of Latin Christendom.
(iv) The old cathedrals and paintings seemed to them gloomy and the old traditions irksome. So in their search for something more to their write page, they discovered books written in Latin.
(v) They learnt to write Latin as the ancient Romans did.

(i) Portugal led the way first in exploration, discovering the Canaries, Madeira and the Azores.
(ii) Sailors sent out by Prince Henry, the Navigator reached Guinea Coast of Africa.
(iii) Later Bartholomew Diaz rounded the Cape of Good Hope. In 1492 Columbus came to a land of America.
(iv) Vasco da Gama reached the island of Mozambique.
(v) Later, he reached part of India and opened avenues for direct trade.
(vi) Cabral sailed to India, following the route of Vasco da Gama, and reached Kozhikode.
(vii) These new maritime discoveries, led t< ; >the direct trade of Europeans to the countries of the East.

(i) Major parts of Spain like Aragon and Castile were under the control of the Moors.
(ii) Together King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella worked hard to drive away the Moors and unite Spain.
(iii) The king and queen took power in their hands and controlled the nobles by eliminating them from the royal councils.
(iv) This made Spain to emerge as a nation-state. England emerged as nation-states.
(v) There was conflict between two royal houses in England namely the House of york and House of Lancaster for the throne.
(vi) In this civil war, Henry Tudor emerged victorious and he started a new line of monarchy in England.
(vii) He entered into matrimonial alliance with Elizabeth of York family. This made England to emerge as a nation-state. France emerged as nation-states.
(viii) Burgundy and western parts of France was for long in English possession.
(ix) At the end of the hundred years war, Louis XI Burgundy returned, after he had driven the English out of the country.
(x) Finally brought under control and Burgundy became part of France in about 1483. This made France to emerge as a nation-state.