(i) Cabral sailed to India, following the route of Vasco da Gama, and reached Kozhikode.
(ii) The zamorin ruler allowed Cabral to build a fort and carry on trade.
(iii) He then left for Cochin, further south, where he was warmly received.
(iv) After establishing a port at Cannanore Cabral returned with six shiploads of spices to Portugal.

(i) On 3 August 1492 Columbus sailed from the harbour of Palos, with three small ships.
(ii) After a voyage of two months, he came to a land which he believed to be India.
(iv) But it wag really a new continent, America.
(v) They were called Indians because, he believed that the land he had discovered was India.

(i) It used education as a tool to teach the Catholic religion to the masses.
(ii) They set up various educational institutions to promote the Catholic religion.
(iii) Society of Jesus succeeded in producing efficient and faithful followers of the Church.
(iv) The Jesuits, helped in raising the standard of the Church in Europe.

(i) A French Protestant he opposed the activities of the Church.
(ii) He was excommunicated for fighting the Pope. After his excommunication, he settled In Geneva, Switzerland.
(iii) His book titled 'Institutes of the Christian Religion' in Latin contains his core ideas.
(iv) Calvin was a great organiser and for a while he controlled the

(i) The most negative result of the Commercial Revolution was the revival of slavery. Slavery had virtually disappeared from European society by the end of the first millennium.
(ii) But the development of mining and plantation farming in the Spanish, Portuguese and English colonies led to the recruitment of slaves as unskilled labourers.
(iii) The attempt to enslave native Americans ended in failure, as they proved too tough to manage. The problem was solved by importing Africans.
(iv) This transatlantic slave trade that exported more than 11 million Africans to the Americas is a sordid story that is a shame on the making of the modem world.

(i) John Cabot, an Itali are explorer saw the Canada and made it an English colony.
(ii) Giovanni da Verrazano, another Italian, explored the lands for the French.
(iii) He annexed provinces for the French in eastern Canada.
(iv) An English explorer named Henry Hudson wanted to find the passage from North America to the Pacific Ocean.

(i) The Elizabethan Age produced many scholars during the English Renaissance.
(ii) Notable among them were William Shakespeare, Christopher Marlowe, and Francis Bacon. Christopher Marlowe was an English playwright, whose important works include Dido, The Queen of Carthage, and Tamburlaine the Great.
(iii) The greatest writer in English was William Shakespeare. Born at Stratford upon Avon, he wrote 38 plays and many poems involving various human emotions namely love, anger, tragedy, jealousy, and deceit.
(iv) His comedy plays include As You Like It, The Taming of the Shrew, and A Midsummer Night s Dream while Othello, Hamlet, King Lear and Romeo and Juliet are examples of tragedies.
(v) His plays, performed in the Globe theatre in London were popular.
(vi) The plays had a profound impact on the English language, and when Britain became an empire after the industrial revolution his plays spread across the world.

(i) Italians preserved the belief that they were descendants of the ancient Romans.
(ii) They looked back upon their ancestry with pride.
(iii) Italy had a more secular culture than most other parts of Latin Christendom.
(iv) The old cathedrals and paintings seemed to them gloomy and the old traditions irksome. So in their search for something more to their write page, they discovered books written in Latin.
(v) They learnt to write Latin as the ancient Romans did.

Causes of Protestant Reformation
(i) The practice of sale of indulgence, nepotism, and simony came under attack
(ii) Inexperienced youths were appointed to lucrative bishoprics.
(iii) Clergymen received incomes from several churches but never appeared in any of them
(iv) The peasantry saw the Church as an oppressive landowner. Martin Luther organise the Protestant Reformation
(v) After a visit to Rome Martin Luther became disgusted with the corruption and luxury of the Church.
(vi) He wrote ninety-five complaints against the Roman Church known as, 95 Theses.
(vii) He argued that Bible alone is supreme and not the Pope and Bishops.
(viii) He believed that only two main rituals, namely, baptism and Holy Communion are accepted by the Bible. In this way the Protestant revolt began.

(i) Portugal led the way first in exploration, discovering the Canaries, Madeira and the Azores.
(ii) Sailors sent out by Prince Henry, the Navigator reached Guinea Coast of Africa.
(iii) Later Bartholomew Diaz rounded the Cape of Good Hope. In 1492 Columbus came to a land of America.
(iv) Vasco da Gama reached the island of Mozambique.
(v) Later, he reached part of India and opened avenues for direct trade.
(vi) Cabral sailed to India, following the route of Vasco da Gama, and reached Kozhikode.
(vii) These new maritime discoveries, led t< ; >the direct trade of Europeans to the countries of the East.

(i) Major parts of Spain like Aragon and Castile were under the control of the Moors.
(ii) Together King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella worked hard to drive away the Moors and unite Spain.
(iii) The king and queen took power in their hands and controlled the nobles by eliminating them from the royal councils.
(iv) This made Spain to emerge as a nation-state. England emerged as nation-states.
(v) There was conflict between two royal houses in England namely the House of york and House of Lancaster for the throne.
(vi) In this civil war, Henry Tudor emerged victorious and he started a new line of monarchy in England.
(vii) He entered into matrimonial alliance with Elizabeth of York family. This made England to emerge as a nation-state. France emerged as nation-states.
(viii) Burgundy and western parts of France was for long in English possession.
(ix) At the end of the hundred years war, Louis XI Burgundy returned, after he had driven the English out of the country.
(x) Finally brought under control and Burgundy became part of France in about 1483. This made France to emerge as a nation-state.

(i) Even in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries Florence had produced Dante and Petrarch, the two great poets of the Italian language.
(ii) Dante s Divine Comedy is a summation of medieval culture.
(iii) Its dominant theme is the salvation of mankind through reason and divine grace.
(iv) It abounds with many other themes such as human love, love of country, interest in natural phenomena.
(v) Petrarch produced works both in Latin and Italian.
(vi) An early humanist, he is considered to be the father of Italian Renaissance literature.
(vii) Boccaccio, also a Florentine, produced Decameron, a collection of 100 stories.
(viii) Niccolo Machiavellis The Prince became famous because of its relevance as a political guide for the rulers.
(ix) In his view, the supreme obligation of the ruler was to maintain the power and safety of the country over which he ruled.