A vaccine is a biological preparation that provides active acquired immunity to a particular disease and resembles a diseasecausing microorganism and is often made from weakened or atlenuated or killed forms of the microbes, their toxins, or one of its surface proteins. The vaccines are classified as first, second and third generation vaccines.

Common Name Botanical name Origin and area Uses PADDY/ RICE:Semi
aquatic crop grown in standing water. Second
position next to wheat Oryza sativa South East Asia - China, lndia,
Thailand- Delta of
TamilNadu 1. Staple food with calcium in many southern hill regions of lndia.
2. Made in to Porridge and gruel.
3. Ragi malt - nutrient drink and fermented beverages

Afforestation is planting of trees where there was no previous tree coverage and the conversion of non-forested lands into forests by planting suitable trees to retrieve the vegetation. Example: Slopes of dams afforested to reduce water run-off, erosion and siltation. It can also provide a range of environmental services including carbon sequestration, water retention.
The Man who Single handedly Created a Dense Forest
(i) Jadav "Molai" Payeng (born 1963) is an environmental activist has single-handedly planted a forest in the middle of a barren wasteland.
(ii) This Forest Man of India has transformed the world's largest river island, Majuli, located on one of India's major rivers, the Brahmaputra, into a dense forest, home to rhinos, deers, elephants, tigers, and birds.
(iii) And today his forest is larger than CentraI Park.

Grassland ecosystem : There is a gradual decrease in the number of organisms in each trophic level from producers to primary consumers and then to secondary consumers, and finally to tertiary consumers. Therefore pyramids of number in grassland ecosystem are always upright.

Morphological adaptations
1. The temperate halophytes are herbaceous but the tropical halophytes are mostly bushy.
2. In addition to the normal roots, many stilt roots are developed.
3. A special type of negatively geotropic roots called pneumatophores with pneumathodes to get sufficient aeration are also present. They are called breathing roots. Example: Avicennia.
4. Presence of thick cuticle on the aerial parts of the plant body.
5. Leaves are thick, entire, succulent and glossy. Some species are aphyllous (without leaves).

The main goal of the Kyoto protocol is to control emissions of the main Anthropogenic (human-emitted) greenhouse gases (GHGs) in ways that reflect underlying national difference in GHG emission, wealth and capacity to make the reductions.

Similarities found in Neanderthal man and Homo sapiens.
(i) They knew to protect their bodies. Neanderthal man used animal hides to protect their bodies.
(ii) They knew the use of fire.
(iii) They buried their dead.

Bioremediation:
It is defined as the use of microorganisms or plants to clean up environmental pollution.
Some examples of bioremediation technologies are :
(i) Phytoremediation - use of plants to bring about remediation of environmental pollutants.
(ii) Mycoremediation - use of fungi to bring about remediation of environmental pollutants.
(iii) Bioventing is the process that increases the oxygen or air flow to accelerate the degradation of environmental pollutants.
(iv) Bioleaching is the use of microorganisms in solution to recover metal pollutants from contaminated sites
(v) Bioaugmentation is the addition of selected microbes to speed up degradation process.
(vi) Composting is the process by which the solid waste is composted by the use of microbes into manure which acts as a nutrient for plant growth.
(vii) Rhizofiltration is the uptake of metals or degradation of organic compounds by rhizosphere microorganisms
(viii) Rhizostimulation is the stimulation of plant growth by the rhizosphere by providing better growth condition or reduction in toxic materials

1. The process protein synthesis actually consists of two stages-transcription and translation.
2. In eukaryotic cells, transcription takes place in the nucleus. During transcription, DNA is used as a template to make a molecule of messenger RNA (mRNA). The molecule of mRNA then leaves the nucleus and reaches ribosome in the cytoplasm, where translation occurs.
3. During translation, the genetic code in mRNA is read and used to make a protein.
4. These two processes are summedup by the central dogma of molecular biology

(i) Genic balance mechanisms of sex determination in Drosophila was first studied by C. B. Bridges.
(ii) In Drosophila, the presence of Y chromosome is essential for the fertility of male sex, but does not determine the male sex.
(iii) The gene for femaleness is located on the X chromosome and those for maleness are located on the autosomes.
(iv) When geneticist C. B. Bridges, working with Drosophila, crossed a triploid (3n) female with a normal male, he observed many combinations of autosomes and sex chromosomes in the offspring.
(v) He suggested that sex In Drosophila is determined by the balance between the genes for femaleness located on the 'X' chromosomes and those for maleness located on the 'autosomes". Hence the sex of an individual is determined by the ratio of its X chromosome to that of its autosome sets. This ratio is termed sex index and is expressed as:
\(Sex \ index=\frac { Number \ of \ X \ Chromosomes }{ Number \ of \ Y \ Chromosomes } \left( \cfrac { X }{ A } \right) \)
(vi) Change in this ratio leads to a changed sex phenotype. The results obtained from a cross between triploid female Drosophila (3A:3X) with a diploid male (2A: XY) is shown in below.
(vii) Bridges classical cross of a triploid (3A+XXX) female fly and a diploid (2A+XY) male fly    ♀    ♂
                  Triploid  ♀                  Diploid ♂
Parent            3A + XXX                      2A + XY
Gametes       (2A + XX) (A + X)          (A + X) (A + Y)
                        (2A +X) (A+XX)

	A + X	A + Y
2A + XX	3A + XXX Triploid Female	3A + XXY Triploid Intersex
2A + X	3A + XX Triploid Intersex	3A + XY Super Male
A + XX	2A + XXX Super female	2A+ XXY Diploid Female
A + X	2A + XX Diploid Female	2A + XY Diploid Male

Different doses of X chromosomes and autosome sets and their effect in sex determination in Drosphild 

Phenotype		Number of 'X' Chromosomes (X)	Number of Autosome sets (A)	\(Sex \ Index=\frac { Number \ of \ X \ Chromosomes }{ Number \ of \ autosome \ sets } \)
Metafemale/ Super female		3	2	3/2 = 1.5
Normal Female	Teraploid	4	4	4/4 = 1.0
	Triploid	3	3	3/3 = 1.0
	Diploid	2	2	2/2 = 1.0
	Haploid	1	1	1/1 = 1.0
Inter sex		2	3	2/3 = 0.67
Normal male		1	2	1/2 = 0.50
Meta male / super male		1	3	1/3 = 0.53

A sex-switch gene in Drosophila directs female development. This gene, Sex-lethal (SxL) located on the X chromosome, has two states of activity. When it is 'on' it directs female development and when it is 'off' maleness ensures. Other genes located on the X chromosome and autosomes regulate this sex-switch gene. However, the Y- chromosome of Drosophila is required for male fertility. 

  
types of aneuploidy.

(a) 

Binary Fission in Amoeba	Multiple fission in Plasmodium
lt results in the production of two individuals from a single parent.	It results in the production of several individuals
lt occurs under favourable conditions	It occurs both under favourable and unfavourable conditions
Nucleus of the parent cell divides only once to form two daughter nuclei	Nucleus of the parent cell undergoes repeated divisions to form a number of daughter nuclei
Cytoplasm divides after nuclear division	Cytoplasm does not divide after each nuclear division but divides during favourable condition
No part of parent body is left unused (e,g: Amoeba)	A part of the body (covering and residuai cytoplasm) is left unused. (e,g: Paramecium)

(b) Budding in yeast and budding in hydra

Budding in Yeast	Budding in Hydra
During budding the cell wall of the parent cell bulges out in the form of an out growth as bud	During budding the ectoderm cells increase and form a small elevation on the body surface as bud.
The parent nucleus divides into two daughter nuclei one of which migrates into bud.	Ectoderm and endoderm are pushed out to form the bud. The bud contains an interior lumen in continuation with parent's gastro vascular cavity (coelenteron)
As the bud enlarges and is fully formed, it is separated from the parentcell and grows into mature yeast. Sometimes a bud may produce another bud over it which is still attached to parent cell forming a false mycelium (or) pseudomycelium	The bud enlarges, develops a mouth and a circle of tentacles at its free end. When fully grown, the bud constricts at the base and finally separates from the parent body and leads an independent life

(c) Regeneration is regrowth in the injured region

Regeneration in Lizard	Regeneration in Planaria
This type of regeneration comes under epimorphosis type.	This type of regeneration comes under morphallaxis type
Several body parts can develop.	When the body is cut into several pieces, each piece can regenerate the lost parts and develops into a whole individual

Continuous variation Discontinuous variation Inheritance of phenotype is determined by the combined effects of many genes. The characteristics are controlled by one or two major genes which may have two or more allelic forms. Most of the characteristics exhibit a complete gradation, from one extreme to the other. Individuals produced by this variation show differences without any intermediate form between them. The variation may be due to the combining effects of environmental & genetic factors. They are unaffected by environmental conditions. This is also known as quantitative inheritance. This is also known as qualitative inheritance, E.g. Human height & skin colour E.g. Style length in Primula, plant height of garden pea.

(i) Flower size Generally large
(ii) It small - aggregated to dense in florescence (eg) Asteraceae flower
(iii) Flower colour - brightly coloured
(iv) The adjacent parts of flower may also be brightly coloured (eg) Coloured bracts of Poinsettia, Bougainvillea
(v) Secretions - Scent, nectar
(vi) Flowers - if no secretion of nectar
(vii) Pollen - Consumed as food or used up to build hives
(viii) Production of foul odour - attracts flies and Beetles
(ix) Presence of juicy cells - juice sucked by insects.
(x) The above characteristic features of entomophilous flowers bring about successful pollination by insects.

Euheterosis: True heterosis
(i) Mutational Euheterosis: Simplest type Often lethal, recessive mutant genes from cross pollinated genes.
(ii) Balanced Euheterosis: Well balanced gene combinations, more adaptive to environmental conditions and agricultural.
Pseudo heterosis: Also called luxuriance, has superiority over parents in vegetative growth but not in yield and adaptation, usually sterile or poorly fertile.

(i) The proportion of the age groups in a population is its age distribution attribute.
(ii) This determines the reproductive status of the population at the given time and is an indicator of the future population size.
(iii) Usually a rapidly growing population will have larger proportion of young individuals.
(iv) A stable population will have an even distribution of various age classes.
(v) A declining population tends to have a larger proportion of older individuals

(i) The introduction of the Nile Perch into Lake Victoria led to the extinction of more than 200 species of cichlid fish in that lake.
(ii) Introduction of African catfish Clarias gariepinus for aquaculture poses a threat to the indigenous catfishes in indian rivers.

(i) Antibiotic resistance occurs when bacteria develop the ability to defeat the drug designed to kill or inhibit their growth.
(ii) It is one of the most acute threats to public health.
(iii) Antibiotic resistance is accelerated by the misuse and overuse of antibiotics, as well as poor infection prevention control.
(iv) Antibiotics should be used only when prescribed by a certified health professional. When the bacteria become resistant, antibiotics cannot fight against them and the bacteria multiply.
(v) Narrow spectrum antibiotics are preferred over broad spectrum antibiotics. They effectively and accurately target specific pathogenic organisms and are less likely to cause resistance.
(vi) "Superbug" is a term used to describe strains of bacteria that are resistant to the majority of antibiotics commonly used today.

Germplasm Conservation
1. Germplasm conservation refers to the conservation of living genetic resources like pollen, seeds or tissue of plant material maintained for the purpose of selective plant breeding, preservation in live condition and used for many research works.
2. Germplasm conservation resources is a part of collection of seeds and pollen that are stored in seed or pollen banks, so as to maintain their viability and fertility for any later use such as hybridization and crop improvement.
3. Germplasm conservation may also involve a gene bank, DNA bank of elite breeding lines of plant resources for the maintenance of biological diversity and also for food security.

1. Amniocentesis is the pre-natal diagnostic technique in which a sample of amniotic fluid from the womb of a pregnant woman is taken during early stages of embryonic development and the cells are cultured and analysed synthetically.
2. Any chromosomal disorder or a metabolic error can be detected and if necessary MTP can be advised.
3. But this technique is misused for knowing the sex of the foetus followed by female foeticide.
4. Female foeticide refers to aborting the female in the mother's womb.
5. In order to prevent female foeticide and infanticide, Government of India has taken various steps like PCPNDT Act .(preconception and prenatal diagnostic technique act-1994) enacted to ban the identification of sex and to prevent the use of prenatal diagnostic techniques for selective abortion.

Relaxin  
(i) It is a hormone secreted by the placenta and also by the corpus luteum during pregnancy.
(ii) It promotes parturition by relaxing the pelvic joints and by dilation of cervical ligaments with continued powerful contractions.
Oxytocin:
(i) It causes the "Let-Down" reflex.
(ii) The actual ejection of milk from the alveoli of the mammary glands.
(iii) During lactation, oxytocin also stimulates the recently emptied uterus to contract, helping it to return to pre-pregnancy size..

Blood cells (RBC) get infected :
(i) Atoxin hemozoin and eiythrocytic debris into the blood stream resulting in malarial paroxysms-shivering chills, high fever followed by sweating.
(ii) Fever and chills are caused partly by malarial toxins that induce macrophages to release tumour necrosis factor (TNF\(\alpha\)) and interleukin.