(c)  A is true, R is false

D. If both A and R are false.

Coprolites are the hardened faecal matters occurs as small pieces. Analysing the coprolites helps to understand the nature of diet of pre-historic animals.

The 5' of DNA refers to the carbon in the sugar to which phosphate (PO4V) functional group is attached. The 3' of DNA refers to the carbon in the sugar to which a hydroxyl (OR) group is attached.

(a) Alexander Fleming
(b) Earnest Chain
(c) Howard Florey

Pro-Insulin contains A and B segments linked by a C - chain and preceded by a leader sequence. Whereas the functional Insulin contains only A and B chain formed by the excision of C-chain and leaders sequence after translation

The transfer of denatured DNA from Agarose gel to Nitrocellulose Blotting or Filter Paper technique was introduced by Southern in 1975 and this technique is called Southern Blotting Technique.
steps
The transfer of DNA from agarose gel to nitrocellulose filter paper is achieved by Capillary Action. A buffer Sodium Saline Citrate (SSC) is used, in which DNA is highly soluble, it can be drawn up through the gel into the Nitrocellulose membrane By this process ss-DNA becomes 'Trapped' in the membrane matrix. This DNA is hybridized with a nucleic acid and can be detected by autoradiography. Autoradiography - A technique that captures the image formed in a photographic emulsion due to emission of light or radioactivity from a labelled component placed together with unexposed film.

Anemophilous plants have the following characteristic features:
(i) The flowers are produced in pendulous, catkin-like or spike inflorescence.
(ii) The axis of inflorescence elongates so that the flowers are brought well above the leaves.
(iii) The perianth is absent or highly reduced.
(iv) The flowers are small, inconspicuous, colourless, not scented, do not secrete nectar.
(v) The stamens are numerous, filaments are long, exerted and versatile.
(vi) Anthers produce enormous quantities of pollen grains compared to a number of ovules available for pollination. They are minute, light and dry so that they can be carried to long distances by wind.
(vii) In some plants, anthers burst violently and release the pollen into the air. Example: Urtica.
(viii) Stigmas are comparatively large, protruding, sometimes branched and feathery, adapted to catch the pollen grains. Generally, a single ovule is present.
(ix) The plant produces flowers before the new leaves appear, so the pollen can be carried without hindrance of leaves.

Botanical pest repellent and insecticide made with the dried leaves of Azadirachta indica Preparation of Bio-pest repellent
(i) Pluck leaves from the neem tree and chop the leaves finely.
(ii) The chopped up leaves were put in a 50-liter container and fill to half with water; put the lid on and leave it for 3 days to brew.
(iii) Using another container, strain the mixture which has brewed for 3 days to remove the leaves, through fine mesh sieve. The filtrate can be sprayed on the plants to repel pests.
(iv) To make sure that the pest repellent sticks to the plants, add 100 ml of cooking oil and the same amount of soap water. (The role of the soap water is to break down the oil, and the role of the oil is to make it stick to the leaves).
(v) The stewed leaves from the mixture can be used in the compost heap or around the base of the plants.

(i) Extremely cold climate
(ii) Low biotic diversity
(iii) Simple vegetation structure
(iv) Limitation of drainage
(v) Short season of growth and reproduction
(vi) Energy and nutrients in the form of dead organic material
(vii) Large population oscillations

i) Comparative studies of mutations (sudden change in a gene) and corresponding alteration in amino acid sequence of specific protein have confirmed the validity of the genetic code.
ii) The simplest type of mutation at the molecular level is a change in nucleotide that substitutes one base for another and are known as base substitutions which may occur spontaneously or due to the action of mutagens.
iii) An example is sickle cell anaemia in humans which results from a point mutation of an allele of B-haemoglobin gene (βHb)
iv) A haemoglobin molecule consists of four polypeptide chans of two types, two a chains and two B chains. Each chain has a heme group on its surface. The heme groups are involved in the binding of oxygen.
v) The human blood disease, sickle cell anaemia is due to abnormal haemoglobin due to a single base substitution at the sixth codon of the beta globin gene from GAG to GTG in' β-chain of haemoglobin. It results in a change of amino acid glutamic acid to valine at the 6th position of β-chain.
vi) This is point mutation that results in the change of amino acids residue glutamic acid to valine. The mutant haemoglobin undergoes polymerisation under oxygen tension causing the change in the shape of the RBC from biconcave to a sickle shaped structure.

The alpine zone between Timberline and snow zone includes in the descending order, a subs now the zone immediately below the snow zone, a meadow zone in the centre and a shrub zone which gradually merges into the timber zone.

Buculoviruses and Nucleopolyhedrovirus

A species is considered extinct when none of its members are alive anywhere in the world. Environmental changes and population characteristics are the two major reason for species extinction.

There are four kinds of ELISA namely, Direct ELISA, Indirect ELISA, sandwich ELISA and competitive ELISA

World biofuel day is observed. every year on 10th August of renewable bio- fuels as an alternative to conventional non-renewable fossil fuels. This day also highlights the various efforts taken by the Government in the biofuel sector.

Zymology an applied science which deals with the biochemical process of fermentation and its practical uses.