(i) The nitriles containing a-hydrogen also undergo condensation with esters in the presence of sodamide in ether to form ketonitriles.
(ii) This reaction is known as "Levine and hauser" acetylation.
(iii) This reaction involves replacement of ethoxy (OC₂H₅) group by methylnitrile (-CH₂CN) group and is called as cyanomethylation reaction.

The product obtained is ethanol

(i) Chain isomerism: This arises due to the difference in the carbon chain of alkyl group attached to carboxyl group. C₅H₁₀O₂.
\({ CH }_{ 3 }-\underset { Pentanoic\ acid }{ { CH }_{ 2 }-{ CH }_{ 2 }-{ CH }_{ 2 } } -COOH\quad \underset { 3-mrthyl\ butanoic\ acid }{ { CH }_{ 3 }-\overset { \underset { | }{ { CH }_{ 3 } } }{ CH } -{ CH }_{ 2 }-COOH } \) 
(ii) Functional isomerism: Carboxylic acids are functional isomers of ester . C₃H₆O₂ 
\(\underset { Propanic \ acid }{ { CH }_{ 3 }-{ CH }_{ 2 }-COOH } \) and \(\underset { Methyl\ acetate }{ { CH }_{ 3 }COO{ H }_{ 5 } } \)  \(\underset { Ethyl\ formate }{ HCOO{ C }_{ 2 }{ H }_{ 5 } } \)

LDPE is formed by heating ethene at 200° to 300°C under oxygen as a catalyst. The reaction follows free radical mechanism. The peroxides formed from oxygen acts as a free radical initiator.

(i) An amino acid is bifunctional organic molecule that contains both a carboxyl group, -COOH as well as an amine group, -NH₂.
(ii) Those amino acids that cannot be synthesised by the body and must be supplied in the diet are called essential amino acids
(iii) The amino acids that can be synthesised from other compounds by the tissues of the body are called non-essential amino acids.

On heating phenol with phthalic anhydride in presence of con.H₂SO₄ phenolphthalein is obtained.

(i) The pores of ordinary filter papers permit the passage of colloidal solutions.
(ii) In ultra filtrations, the membranes are made by using collodion cellophane or visiking.
(iii) When a colloidal solution is filtered using such a filter, colloidal particles are separated on the filter and the impurities are removed as washings.
(iv) This process is quickened by application of pressure.
(v) The separation of sol particles from electrolyte by filteration through an ultrafilter is called ultrafiltration.

(i) Any metal above hydrogen in the electrochemical series is a weaker reducing agent than hydrogen and will not convert H⁺ to H².
(ii) This explains why Zn lying below hydrogen reacts with dil. H₂SO₄ to liberate H₂, while Cu lying above hydrogen does not react.
Zn + 2H⁺ (dil.H₂SO₄) ➝ Zn²⁺ + H₂ ↑
Cu + 2H⁺ (dil.H₂SO₄) Cu²⁺ + H₂

Other metals such as aluminium, copper and silver also undergo corrosion, but at a slower rate than iron. Let us consider the reduction of aluminium,
\({ Al }_{ (s) }\rightarrow { Al }_{ (aq) }^{ 3+ }+{ 3e }^{ - }\)
Al³⁺, which reacts with oxygen in air to form a protective coating of Al₂O₃. This coating act as a protective film for the inner surface. So, further corrosion is prevented.

Zinc is oxidised to Zn^{2+ i}ons and the Cu²⁺ ions are reduced to metallic copper. The half reactions are represented as below.
\( { Zn }_{ (s) }\rightarrow { Zn }_{ (aq) }^{ + }+2e^{ - }\) (oxiation)
Loss of election oxidation
\({ Cu }_{ (aq) }^{ 2+ }+{ 2e }^{ - }\rightarrow { Cu }_{ (s) }\) (reduction)
Gain of electron oxidation.

(i) Glycerol is prepared in a large scale by the hydrolysis of oils or fats either by using alkali or by super heated steam.
(ii) During this process, soap is formed along with the byproduct glycerol and this process is called saponification.

Uses of glycerol:
(i) Glycerol is used as a sweetening agent in confectionery and beverages.
(ii) It is used in the manufacture of cosmetics and transparent soaps.
(iii) It is used in making printing inks and stamp pad ink and lubricant for watches and clocks.
(iv) It is used in the manufacture of explosive like dynamite and cordite by mixing it with chaina clay.

(i) Phenol reacts with bromine water to give a white precipitate of 2,4,6-tri bromo phenol.

(ii) It readily forms tribromo derivative since it has two-o and one-p position free with respect to OH group.

Solubility can be calculated from the molar solubility i.e., the maximum number of moles of solute that can be dissolved in one litre of the solution.
For a solute X_mY_n,
\({ X }_{ m }{ Y }_{ n(s) }\rightleftharpoons m{ X }_{ (aq) }^{ n+ }+{ nY }_{ (aq) }^{ m- }\)
From the above stoichiometrically balanced equation we have come to know that 1 mole of X_m Y_n(s) dissociated to furnish 'm' moles of Xⁿ⁺ and 'n' moles of Y^m- if 's' is molar solubility of X_mY_n then
[Xⁿ⁺] = ms and [Y^m-] = ns
ஃK_sp = [Xⁿ⁺]^m [Y^m-]ⁿ
K_sp = (ms)^m (ns)ⁿ
K_sp = (m)^m (n)ⁿ (s)^m+n

Potassium permanganate is a strong oxidising agent, its oxidising action differs in different reaction medium.
In neutral medium:
In neutral medium, it is reduced to MnO₂
MnO₄^- + 2H₂O + 3e^- ⟶ MnO₂ + 4OH^-
(i) It oxidises H₂S to sulphur
2MnO₄^- + 3H₂S ⟶ 2MnO₂ + 3S + 2OH^- + 2H₂O
(ii) It oxidises thiosulphate into sulphate
8MnO₄^- + 3S₂O₃^-2 + H₂O ⟶ 6SO₄^-2 + 8MnO₂ + 2OH^-

\(2{ NH }_{ { 3 }_{ (g) } }\overset { pt }{ \longrightarrow } { N }_{ { 2 }_{ (g) } }+3{ H }_{ { 2 }_{ (g) } }\)
Rate = \(-\frac { 1 }{ 2 } \frac { d\left[ { NH }_{ 3 } \right] }{ dt } =\frac { d\left[ { N }_{ 2 } \right] }{ dt } =\frac { 1 }{ 3 } \frac { d\left[ { N }_{ 2 } \right] }{ dt } \)
However, it is given that the reaction is of zero order. Therefore
\(-\frac { 1 }{ 2 } \frac { d\left[ { NH }_{ 3 } \right] }{ dt } =\frac { d\left[ { N }_{ 2 } \right] }{ dt } =\frac { 1 }{ 3 } \frac { d\left[ { N }_{ 2 } \right] }{ dt } k\)
= 2.5 x 10^-4 mol L^-1 S^-1
The rate of production of N₂ is
\(\frac { d\left[ { N }_{ 2 } \right] }{ dt } \)=  2.5 x 10^-4 mol L^-1 S^-1
The rate of production of H₂ is
\(\frac { d\left[ { N }_{ 2 } \right] }{ dt } \)= 3 x 2.5 x 10^-4 mol L^-1 s^-1
= 7.5 x 10^-4 mol L^-1 s^-1.

(i) (a) Vanadium
(b) Iron
(c) Silver
(ii) H₂S ⟶ 2H⁺+ S^2-
[MnO₄^- + 8H⁺ + 5e^- ⟶ Mn²⁺ + 4H₂O] x 2
[S2^- ⟶ S + 2e^-] x 5
______________________________________
2MnO₄^- + 5S^2- + 16H⁺⟶ 2Mn²⁺ + 5S + 8H₂O
_______________________________________

\({ t }_{ \frac { 3 }{ 4 } }=\frac { 2.303 }{ K } \log { \frac { { \left[ R \right] }_{ 0 } }{ \frac { 1 }{ 4 } { \left[ R \right] }_{ 6 } } } \)
\({ t }_{ \frac { 3 }{ 4 } }=\frac { 2.303 }{ K } \log 4\)
\(=\frac { 2.303\times 0.6021 }{ K } =\frac { 1.386 }{ K } \)
\(=2\times \frac { 0.693 }{ K } \)
\(=2{ t }_{ \frac { 1 }{ 2 } }\)

(i) PCI₅+ C₂H₅OH \(\longrightarrow \) C₂H₅CI + POCl₃ + HCI
(ii) P₄+ 10SO₂Cl₂ \(\longrightarrow \) 4PCI₅ + 10SO₂
(iii) POCl₃ + 3H₂O \(\longrightarrow \) H₃PO₄ + 3HCI
(iv) PH₃ + HBr\(\longrightarrow \) PH₄Br
(v) PCl₃+ 3H₂O\(\longrightarrow \) H₃PO₃ + 3 HCI

O₃ oxidises potassium iodide to iodine. This reaction is quantitative and can be used for estimation of ozone 
\({ O }_{ 3 }+2KI+{ H }_{ 2 }O\longrightarrow 2KOH+{ O }_{ 2 }+{ I }_{ 2 }\)

(i) (a) When AgCl is doped with CdCI₂, two Ag⁺ ions will be replaced by one Cd²⁺ ion to maintain electrical neutrality.
(b) Thus, a hole is created at the lattice site for every Cd²⁺ ion introduced. Hence the crystal becomes conductor.
(ii) p-type semiconductor is obtained, when Si is doped with boron.

(i) Covalent Solids: Silicon carbide, graphite.
(ii) Molecular Solids: Urea, benzene, ammonia, water and argon.
(iii) Ionic Solids: Zinc sulphide, potassium sulphate.
(iv) Metallic solids: Rubidium and tin.

(i) Fullerenes are newly synthesised allotropes of carbon.
(ii) Unlike graphite and diamond, these allotropes are discrete molecules such as C_32' C_50' C_60' C_70' C₇₆ etc.
(iii) These molecules have cage like structures.
(iv) The C₆₀ molecules have a soccer ball like structure and is called buckminster fullerene or buckyballs.
(v) It has a fused ring structure consists of 20 six membered rings and 12 five membered rings.
(vi) Each carbon atom is sp² hybridised and forms three σ bonds & a delocalised π bond giving aromatic character to these molecules.
(vii) The C-C bond distance is 1.44 Å and C=C distance 1.38 Å.

(i) Ellingham diagram helps us to select a suitable reducing agent and appropriate temperature range for reduction.
(ii) From the Ellingham diagram, we can infer the relative stability of different metal oxides at a given temperature.
(iii) Ellingham diagram is used to predict thermodynamic feasibility of reduction of oxides of one metal by another metal.

(i) Depressant are used to prevent one type of sulphide ore particles from forming the froth with air bubbles.
(ii) Eg: In the process of separation of lead sulphide (Pbs) ore from zinc sulphide (ZnS) ore, sodium cyanide is used as depressant.

When a crushed ore containing nickel, copper and cobalt is treated with aqueous ammonia under suitable pressure, ammonia selectively leaches these metals by forming their soluble complexes viz. [Ni(NH₃)₆]2+, [Cu(NH₃)₄]²⁺, and [Co(NH₃)₅H₂O]³⁺ respectively from the ore leaving behind the gangue, iron(III) oxides/ hydroxides and aluminosilicate.

If we perform a qualitative analysis to identify the constituent ions present in both the compounds, Mohr's salt answers the presence of Fe²⁺, NH₄^+, and SO₄^2- ions, whereas the potassium ferrithiocyanate will not answer Fe³⁺ and SCN ions. We can infer that the double salts loose their identity and dissociate into their constituent simple ions in solutions, whereas the complex ion in coordination compound, does not loose its identity and never dissociate to give simple ions.

Even though VBT explains many of the observed properties of complexes, it still has following limitations.
(i) It does not explain the colour of the complex.
(ii) It considers only the spin only magnetic moments and does not consider the other components of magnetic moments.
(iii) It does not provide a quantitative explanation as to why certain complexes are inner orbital complexes and the: others are outer orbital complexes for the same metal. For example, [Fe(CN)₆]^4- is diamagnetic (low spin) whereas [FeF₆]^4-is paramagnetic (high spin).

(i) UNIDENTATE LIGAND: (or) Monodentate
When a ligand is bonded through one donor site to central metal atom/ion it is said to be unidentate ligand.
Eg: Cl^-, CO, NH³, H₂O, etc.
(ii) DIDENTATE LIGAND: (or) Bidentate
When a ligand is bonded through two donor sites to central metal atom/ion, it is said to be didentate ligand.
Eg: Oxalate, 1,2 - ethanediamine.
(iii) AMBIDENTATE LIGAND:
When a ligand i.s bonded through two different atoms, it is said to be ambidentate ligand.
Eg: NO₂-, SCN^-, CN^-