Botanical medicines: Medicinal plants which are marketed as powders or in other modified forms.
Bio medicines: Derived from the bio molecules of all organisms include micro organisms.

It is a technique of encasing seeds in a mixture of clay & soil humus & scattering them on to suitable ground, not planting of trees manually.

1. The outer bark of trees which extends to the last formed periderm is called rhytidome.
2. It is composed of multiple layers of suberized periderm, cortical & phloem tissues.
3. It protects the stem against fire, water loss, invasion of insects & prevents infection by microorganisms.

Vivipary seed germinate in the fruits of mother plant itself.
Example: Halophytes

Pineapple, banana, strawberry and potato.

A group of genes that together determine a characteristic of an organism.

A diploid embryosac is formed from megaspore mother cell without a regular meiotic division
Example:
Eupatorium, Aerva

Pollination carried out by beetle is called cantharophily.

S.No	Common name	Botanical name
1	Foxtail Millet	Staria italica
2	Kodo Millet	Paspalum scrobiculatum

(i) They help for detailed floristic and faunistic studies
(ii) These groves provide a number of ecosystem services to the neighborhood like protecting watershed, fodder, medicinal plants and microclimate control

(I) Buying and use only ecofriendly products and recycle them.
(II) Growing more trees.
(III) Choosing sustained farm products (vegetables, fruits and greens, etc.)
(IV) Reduce the use of natural resources.
(V) Recycle the waste and reduce the amount of waste you produce.
(VI) Reduce consumption of water and electricity.
(VII) Reduce or eliminate the use of house-hold chemicals and pesticides.
(VIII) Maintain your cars and vehicles properly. (In order to reduce carbon emission).
(IX) Create awareness and educate about ecosystem protection among your friends and family members and ask them to find out solution to minimise this problem.

Detritus food chain
(i) This type of food chain begins with dead organic matter which is an important source of energy.
(ii) A large amount of organic matter is derived from the dead plants, animals and their excreta.
(iii) This type of food chain is present in all ecosystems
(iv) The transfer of energy from the dead organic matter is transferred through a series of organisms called detritus consumers. (detrivores)-Small carnivores -large (top) carnivores with repeated eating and being eaten respectively.

(a) Life cycle is completed within a short period (Ephemerals)
(b) In succulents the stem possess a water storage region
(c) Root hairs & root caps are also well developed

1. Many herbivores are predators. Cattles, camels, goats etc., frequently browse on the tender shoots of herbs, shrubs and trees. Generally annuals suffer more than the perennials. Grazing and browsing may cause remarkable changes in vegetation. Nearly 25 percent of all insects are known as phytophagous (feeds on plant sap and other Parts of Plant).
2. Many defense mechanisms are evolved to avoid their predations by plants. Examples:  Calotropis produces highly poisonous cardiac glycosides, tobacco produces nicotine, coffee plants produce caffeine, Cinchona plant produces quinine. Thorns of Bougainvillea,  spines of Opuntia, and latex of cacti also protect them from Predators.

(a) Mutualism: It is an interaction between two species of organisms in which both are benefitted from the obligate association. The following are common examples of mutualism.
(b) Nitrogen fixation : Rhizobium (Bacterium) forms nodules in the roots of leguminous plants and lives symbiotically. The Rhizobium obtains food from leguminous plant and in turn fixes atmospheric nitrogen into nitrate, making it available to host plants.
Other examples:
Water fern (Azolla) and Nitrogen fixing Cyanobacterium (Anabaena) .

(i) Sutton and Boveri independently proposed the chromosome theory of inheritance.
(ii) Somatic cells of organisms are derived from the zygote by repeated mitotic division. These consist of two identical sets of chromosomes. One set is received from female parent and the other from male parent which constitute the homologous pair.
(iii) Chromosomes retain their structural uniqueness and individuality throughout the life cycle of an organism.
(iv) Each chromosome carries specific determiners or Mendelian factors which are now termed as genes.
(v) The behaviour of chromosomes during the gamete formation provides evidence to the fact that genes are located on chromosomes.

It is based on independent, self-replicating extra chromosomal unit called plasmogene located in the cytoplasmic organelles, chloroplast & Mitochondrion.

Endothecium is a single layer of radially elongated cells, The inner tangential wall of this cell develops bands of a cellulose, The cells are hygroscopic. The stomium of anther lobe lack these thickenings. Stomium along with the hygroscopic nature of endothecium helps in the dehiscence of anther

The primary endosperm nucleus divides immediately after fertilization. It develops into an endosperm which is a nutritive tissue and a regulatory structure. The zygote divides only after that to form an embryo so that it can get nourishment from the endosperm that has formed earlier.

i. Intravarietal hybridization
The cross between the plants of same variety.
ii. Intervarietal hybridization 
The cross between the plants belonging to two different varieties of the same species 
iii. Interspecific hybridization
The cross between the plants belonging to different species belonging to the same genus
Example: Gossypium hirsutum x Gossypium arboretum - Deviraj.
IV. Intergeneric hybridization
The crosses between the plants belonging to two different genera.
Example: Raphanobrassica and Triticale.

Types of Plant tissue cultures
Based on the explants some other plant tissue culture types are
(a) Organ culture
(b) Meristem culture
(c) Protoplast culture
(d) Cell culture

(a) Organ culture
The culture of embryos, anthers, ovaries roots, shoots or other organs of plants on culture media.
(b) Meristem Culture:
The culture of any plant meristematic tissue on culture media.

(c) Protoplast Culture:
1. Protoplasts are cells without a cell wall, but bounded by a cell membrane or plasma membrane.
2. Using protoplasts, it is possible to regenerate whole plants from single cells and also develop somatic hybrids.
The steps involved in protoplast culture
(i) Isolation of protoplast:
1. Small bits of plant tissue like leaf tissue are used for isolation of protoplast.
2. The leaf tissue is immersed in 0.5% Macrozyme and 2% Onozuka cellulase enzymes dissolved in 13% sorbitol or mannitol at pH 5.4.
3. It is then incubated over-night at 25^oC.
4. After a gentle teasing of cells, protoplasts are obtained, and these are then transferred to 20% sucrose solution to retain their viability.
They are then centrifuged to get pure protoplasts as different from debris of cell walls.
(ii) Fusion of Protoplast
1. It is done through the use of a suitable fusogen. This is normally PEG (Polyethylene Glycol).
2. The isolated protoplast are incubated in 25 to 30% concentration of PEG with Ca⁺⁺ ions and the Protoplast shows agglutination (the formation of clumps of cells) and fusion.
(iii) Culture of Protoplast:
MS liquid medium is used with some modification in droplet, plating or micro drop array techniques. Protoplast viability is tested with fluorescein diacetate before the culture. The cultures are incubated in continuous light 1000-2000 lux at 25^oC. The cell wall formation occurs within 24-48 hours and the first division of new cells occurs between 2-7 days of culture.

(iv) Selection of somatic hybrid cells:
The fusion product of protoplasts without nucleus of different cells is called a cybrid. Following this nuclear fusion happen. This process is called somatic hybridization.
(d) Cell Suspension Culture
The growing of cells including the culture of single cells or small aggregates of cells in vitro in liquid medium is known as cell suspension culture. The cell suspension is prepared by transferring a portion of callus to the liquid medium and agitated using rotary shaker instrument. The cells are separated from the callus tissue and used for cell suspension culture.

Direct or Vector less Gene Transfer
In the direct gene transfer methods, the foreign gene of interest is delivered into the host plant without the help of a vector, The following are some of the common methods of direct gene transfer in plants.
(i) Chemical mediated gene transfer: Certain chemicals like polyethylene glycol (PEG) and dextran sulphate induce DNA uptake into plant protoplasts.
(ii) Microinjection: The DNA is directly injected into the nucleus using fine tipped glass needle or micro pipette to transform plant cells. The protoplasts are immobilized on a solid support (agarose on a microscopic slide) or held with a holding pipette under section.
(iii) Electroporation Methods of Gene Transfer: A pulse of high voltage is applied to protoplasts, cells or tissues which makes transient pores in the plasma membrane through which uptake of foreign DNA occurs.

(iv) Liposome mediated method of Gene transfer: Liposomes the artificial phospholipid vesicles are useful in gene transfer. The gene or DNA is transferred from liposome into vacuole of plant cells. It is carried out by encapsulating DNA into the vacuole. This technique is advantageous because the liposome protects the introduced DNA from being damaged by the acidic pH and protease enzymes present in the vacuole. Liposome and tonoplast of  vacuole fusion resulted in gene transfer. This process is called lipofection.

(v) Biolistics: The foreign DNA is coated onto the surface of minute gold or tungsten particles (1-3 \(\mu\)m) and bombarded onto the target tissue or cells using a particle gun (also called as gene gun/ micro projectile gun/shotgun) Then the bombarded cells or tissues are cultured on selected medium to regenerate plants from the transformed cells.

Applications of Biotechnology
1. Biotechnology is one of the most important applied interdisciplinary sciences of the 21st century. It is the trusted area that enables us to find the beneficial way of life.
2. Biotechnology has wide applications in various sectors like agriculture, medicine, environment and commercial industries.
3. This science has an invaluable outcome like transgenic varieties of plants e.g. transgenic cotton (Bt-cotton), rice, tomato, tobacco, cauliflower, potato and banana.
4. The development of transgenics as pesticide resistant, stress resistant and disease resistant varieties of agricultural crops is the immense outcome of biotechnology.
5. The synthesis of human insulin and blood protein in E.coli and utilized for insulin deficiency disorder in human is a breakthrough in biotech industries in medicine.
6. The synthesis of vaccines, enzymes, antibiotics, dairy products and beverages are the products of biotech industries.
7. Biochip based biological computer is one of the successes of biotechnology.
8. Genetic engineering involves genetic manipulation, tissue culture involves aseptic cultivation of totipotent plant cell into plant clones under controlled atmospheric conditions.
9. Single cell protein from Spirulina is utilized in food industries.
10. Production of secondary metabolites, biofertilizers, biopesticides and enzymes.
11. Biomass energy, biofuel, bioremediation and phytoremediation for environmental biotechnology.

The widely accepted model of DNA recombination during crossing over is Holliday's hybrid DNA model.

Steps involved are:
1. Homologous DNA molecules are paired side by side with their duplicated copies of DNAs
2. One strand of both DNAs cut in one place by the enzyme endonuclease.
3. The cut strands cross and join the homologous strands forming the Holliday structure or Holliday junction.
4. The Holliday junction migrates away from the original site, a process called branch migration, as a result heteroduplex region is formed.
5. DNA strands may cut along through  the vertical (V) line or horizontal (H) line.
6. The vertical cut will result in heteroduplexes with recombinants.
7. The horizontal cut will result in heteroduplex with non recombinants.

Law of Dominance: The characters were controlled by discrete units called factors which occur in pairs. In a dissimilar pair of factors one member of the pair is dominant & the other is recessive.
(i) This law gives an explanation to the monohybrid cross.
(a) the expression of only one of the parental characters in F₁ generation.
(b) the expression of both in the F₂ generation
(ii) It also explains the proportion of 3:1 obtained at the F₂

Monohybrid Cross 
(i) Monohybrid inheritance is the inheritance of a single character i. e, plant height.
(ii) It involves the inheritance of two alleles of a single gene.
(iii) When the F₁ generation was selfed Mendel noticed that 7847 of 1064 F₂ plants were tall, while 277of 1064 were dwarf.
(iv) When tall pea plants were pollinated with the pollens from a true breeding dwarf plants, the result was all tall plants.
(v) Dwarf trait appears in the F₂ generation.
(vi) When the parental types were reversed, the result was the same - All tall plants.
(vii) Tall (♀) \(\times\) Dwarf (♂) and Tall (♂) \(\times\) Dwarf (♀) mating's are done in both ways.
(viii) It was concluded that the trait is not sex dependent.
(xi) The gene for plant height has two alleles: Tall (T) \(\times\) Dwarf (t). (TT, Tt, Tt: tt)