1. It is a mixture of glucosides derived from Aloe vera.
2. Gel used as skin tonic. Gives cooling effect.
3. Creams, lotions, shampoos, shaving creams, after shave lotions. Rejuvenation of aging skin. Emollient, antibacterial, antioxidant, antifungal and antiseptic.
4. Capsaicin is an active component has pain relieving properties derived from Capsicum annum.
5. Good source of Vitamin C, A and E.

Germplasm Conservation
1. Germplasm conservation refers to the conservation of living genetic resources like pollen, seeds or tissue of plant material maintained for the purpose of selective plant breeding, preservation in live condition and used for many research works.
2. Germplasm conservation resources is a part of collection of seeds and pollen that are stored in seed or pollen banks, so as to maintain their viability and fertility for any later use such as hybridization and crop improvement.
3. Germplasm conservation may also involve a gene bank, DNA bank of elite breeding lines of plant resources for the maintenance of biological diversity and also for food security.

GM Food - Benefits:
1. High yield without pest.
2. 70% reduction of pesticide usage.
3. Reduce soil pollution problem.
4. Conserve microbial population in soil.
Risks - believed to:
1. Affect liver, kidney function and cancer.
2. Hormonal imbalance and physical disorder.
3. Anaphylactic shock (sudden hypersensitive reaction) and allergies.
4. Adverse effect in immune system because of bacterial protein.
5. Loss of viability of seeds show in terminator seed technology of GM crops.

The advantages of Bt cotton are:
1. Yield of cotton is increased due to effective control of bollworms.
2. Reduction in insecticide use in the cultivation of Bt cotton
3. Potential reduction in the cost of cultivation.
Disadvantages
Bt cotton has some limitations:
1. Cost of Bt cotton seed is high.
2. Effectiveness up to 120 days after that efficiency is reduced.
3. Ineffective against sucking pests like jassids, aphids and whitefly.
4. Affects pollinating insects and thus yield.

ovule is divided into two types based on the position of the sporogenous cell

Tenuinucellate type	Crassinucellate type
Sporogenous cell is hypodermal with a single layer of nucellar tissue around it.	Sporogenous cell is sub hypodermal
Have very small nucellus	Have fairly large nucellus.

(i) Hybridization, Mutation breeding, Polyploid breeding, Breeding for developing resistance to diseases, Biofortification, Breeding for resistance to insect pests, New Breeding Techniques (NBT) such as.
(ii) CRISPR/ Cas (Cutting and modifying the genome during the repair process by tool).
(iii) ODM: Oligonucleotide - directed mutagenesis
(iv) Transferring a gene from an identical or closely related species (Cisgenesis).
(v) Organising processes that alter gene activity without altering the DNA itself (Epigenetic methods).

Effects of deforestation:
(i) Burning of forest wood release stored carbon, a negative impact just opposite of carbon sequestration,
(ii) Trees and plants bind the soil particles. The removal of forest cover increases soil erosion and decreases soil fertility. Deforestation in dry areas leads to the formation of deserts.
(iii) The amount of runoff water increases soil erosion and also creates flash flooding, thus reducing moisture and humidity.
(iv) The alteration of local precipitation patterns leading to drought conditions in many regions. It triggers adverse climatic conditions and alters water cycle in the ecosystem.
(v) It decreases the bio-diversity significantly as their habitats are disturbed and disruption of natural cycles.
(vi) Loss of livelihood for forest dwellers and rural people.
(vii) Increased global warming and account for one-third of total CO₂ emission.
(viii) Loss of life support resources, fuel, medicinal herbs, and wild edible fruits.
Benefits of agroforestry:
(i) It is an answer to the problem of soil and water conservation and also to stabilize the soil (salinity and water table) reduce landslide and water run-off problem.
(ii) Nutrient cycling between species improves and organic matter is maintained.
(iii) Trees provide a micro climate for crops and maintain O₂ - CO₂ balanced, atmospheric temperature and relative humidity.
(iv) Suitable for dry land where rainfall is minimum and hence it is a good system for alternate land use pattern.
(v) Multipurpose tree varieties like Acacia are used for wood pulp, tanning, paper, and firewood industries.
(vi) Agroforestry is recommended for the following purposes. It can be used as Farm Forestry for the extension of forests, mixed forestry, shelterbelts, and linear strip plantation.

Rain Water Harvesting - RWH (Solution to water crisis - A ecological problem)
Rainwater harvesting is the accumulation and storage of rainwater for reuse in-site rather than allowing it to run off.
Rainwater can be collected from rivers, rooftops and the water collected is directed to a deep pit.
The water percolates and gets stored in the pit.
RWH is a sustainable water management practice implemented not only in the urban area but also in agricultural fields, which is an important economic cost-effective method for the future.


Environmental benefits of Rain Water Harvesting:
(i) Promotes adequacy of underground water and water conservation.
(ii) Mitigates the effect of drought.
(iii) Reduces soil erosion as surface run-off is reduced.
(iv) Reduces flood hazards.
(v) Improves groundwater quality and water table / decreases salinity.
(vi) No land is wasted for storage purpose and no population displacement is involved.
(vii) Storing water underground is an eco- friendly measure and a part of sustainable water storage strategy for local communities.

Grassland ecosystem : There is a gradual decrease in the number of organisms in each trophic level from producers to primary consumers and then to secondary consumers, and finally to tertiary consumers. Therefore pyramids of number in grassland ecosystem are always upright.

Dispersal by Animals (Zoochory)
Birds and mammals, including human beings play an efficient and important role in the dispersal of fruit and seeds. They have the following devices.
i. Hooked fruit: The surface of the fruit or seeds have hooks (Xanthium), barbs (Andropogon), spines (Aristida) by means of which they adhere to the body of animals or clothes of human beings and get dispersed.
ii. Sticky fruits and seeds:
a. Some fruits have sticky glandular hairs by which they adhere to the fur of grazing animals. Example: Boerhaavia and Cleome.
b. Some fruits have viscid layer which adhere to the beak of the bird which eat them and when they rub them on to the branch of the tree, they disperse and germinate. Example: Cordia and Alangium.
iii. Fleshy fruits: Some fleshy fruits with conspicuous colours are dispersed by human beings to distant places after consumption.
Example: Mango and Diplocyclos

Morphological adaptations
1. The temperate halophytes are herbaceous but the tropical halophytes are mostly bushy.
2. In addition to the normal roots, many stilt roots are developed.
3. A special type of negatively geotropic roots called pneumatophores with pneumathodes to get sufficient aeration are also present. They are called breathing roots. Example: Avicennia.
4. Presence of thick cuticle on the aerial parts of the plant body.
5. Leaves are thick, entire, succulent and glossy. Some species are aphyllous (without leaves).

i. Free floating hydrophytes: These plants float freely on the surface of water. They remain in contact with water and air, but not with soil. Examples: Eichhornia, Pistia and Wolffia (smallest flowering plant).
ii. Rooted floating hydrophytes: In these plants, the roots are fixed in mud, but their leaves and flowers are floating on the surface of water. These plants are in contact with soil, water and air. Examples: Nelumbo, Nymphaea, Potomogeton and Marsilea. Lotus seeds showing highest longevity in plant kingdom.
iii. Submerged floating hydrophytes: These plants are completely submerged in water and not in contact with soil and air. Examples: Ceratophyllum and Utricularia.
iv. Rooted-submerged hydrophytes: These plants are completely submerged in water and rooted in soil and not in contact with air. Examples: Hydrilla, Vallisneria and Isoetes.
v. Amphibious hydrophytes (Rooted emergent hydrophytes): These plants are adapted to both aquatic and terrestrial modes of life. They grow in shallow water. Examples: Ranunculus, Typha and Sagittaria.

Soil is commonly stratified into horizons at different depth. These layers differ in their physical, chemical and biological properties. This succession of super-imposed horizons is called soil profile.
Horizon Description O-Horizon (Organic horizon) Humus It consists of fresh or partially decomposed organic matter.
01 - Freshly fallen leaves, twigs, flowers and fruits.
02 - Dead plants, animals and their excreta decomposed by micro-organisms.
Usually absent in agricultural and deserts. A-Horizon
(Leached horizon)
Topsoil - Often rich in humus and minerals. It consists of top soil with humus, living creatures and in-organic minerals.
A1 - Dark and rich in organic matter because of mixture of organic and mineral matters.
A2 - Light coloured layer with large sized mineral particles. B-Horizon (Accumulation horizon) (Subsoil - Poor in humus, rich in minerals) It consists of iron, aluminium and silica rich clay organic compounds. C - Horizon (partially weathered horizon) Weathered rock Fragments - Little or no plant or animal life. It consists of parent materials of soil, composed of little amount of organic matters without life forms. R-Horizon (Parent material) Bedrock It is a parent bed rock upon which underground water is found.

  Southern blotting Northern blotting Western blotting Name  Southern name of the inventor   Northern a misnomer  Western a misnomer Separation of  DNA  RNA  Proteins Denaturation  Needed   Not Needed  Needed Membrane   Nitrocellulose/nylon  Amino benzyloxmethyl  Nitrocellulose Hybridisation  DNA-DNA  RNA-DNA  Protein-antibody Visualising  Autoradiogram  Autoradiogram  Dark room

  
types of aneuploidy.

Zea mays is a monoecious plant with
(i) Male inflorescence - the tassel with staminateflowers
(ii) Female inflorescence - ear or cob with pistillate flowers. 
(iii) Unisexuality in maize is through selective abortion of stamens - in ear florets and Pistils - in tassel florets. 
(iv) A substitution of two single gene pairs 'ba' for barren plant and 'ts' - for tassel seed makes the differences between monoecious and dioecious (rare) maize plants. 
(v) The allele for barren plant (ba) when homozygous makes the stalk staminate by eliminating silk and ears. 
(vi) The allele for tassel seed (ts) transforms tassel into a pistillate flower. 
(vii) The development of both inflorescence is the result of selective abortion of pistils or stamens. 

1. It is found in 40'ciock plant (Mirabilis jalapa).
2. Two types of variegated leaves.
(i) Dark green leaved plants
(ii) Pale green leaved plants
3. When the pollen of dark green leaved plant (male) is transferred to the stigma of pale green leaved plant (female) and pollen of pale green leaved plant is transferred to the stigma of dark green leaved plant, the F₁ generation of both the crosses must be identical as, per mendelian inheritance.
4. But in the reciprocal cross the F₁ plant differs from each other.
5. In each cross, the F₁ plant resembles female plant.
6. This inheritance is not due to nuclear gene.
7. This is due to the chloroplast gene found in the ovum of the female plant which contributes the cytoplasm.
8. During fertilization male gamete contribute only the nucleus but not cytoplasm.

Continuous variation Discontinuous variation Inheritance of phenotype is determined by the combined effects of many genes. The characteristics are controlled by one or two major genes which may have two or more allelic forms. Most of the characteristics exhibit a complete gradation, from one extreme to the other. Individuals produced by this variation show differences without any intermediate form between them. The variation may be due to the combining effects of environmental & genetic factors. They are unaffected by environmental conditions. This is also known as quantitative inheritance. This is also known as qualitative inheritance, E.g. Human height & skin colour E.g. Style length in Primula, plant height of garden pea.

Interlocus interactions take place between the alleles at different loci i.e. between alleles of different genes
Dominant Epistasis: It is a gene interaction in which 2 alleles of a gene at one locus interfere & suppress or mask the phenotypic expression or mask the phenotypic expression of a different pair of alleles of another gene at another locus.
The gene that suppresses or masks the phenotypic expression of a gene at another locus is known as epistatic. The gene whose expression is interfered by non-allelic genes & prevents from exhibiting its character is known as hypostatic.
When both the genes are present together, the phenotype is determined by the epistatic gene and not by the hypostatic gene.
In the summer squash, the fruit colour locus has a dominant allele 'W' for white colour & a recessive allele 'w' for coloured fruit.
'W' allele is donminant that masks the expression of any colour. In another locus hypostatic allele 'G' is for yellow fruit and its recessive allele 'g' for green fruit.
In the first locus the white is dominant to colour where as in the second locus yellow is dominant to green.
When the white fruit with genotype WWgg is crossed with yellow fruit with genotype wwGG, the F1 plants have white fruit and are heterozygous (WwGg).
When F1 heterozygous plants are crossed they give rise to F2 with the phenotypic ratio of 12 white:3 yellow: 1 green.

Since W is epistatic to the alleles 'G' and 'g'. the white which is dominant, masks the effect of yellow or green.
Homozygous recessive ww genotypes only can give the coloured fruits (4/16).
Double recessive 'wwgg' will give green fruit (1/16).
The Plants having only 'G' in its genotype (wwGg or wwGG) will give the yellow fruit(3/16).

Dicot Seed	Monocot Seed
Seed coat differentiated into outer hard testa, inner thin membranous tegmen.	Seed coat brownish membranous unilayer closely adhered to the grain
Two cotyledons, laterally attached to the embryonic axis	Embryo consists of one shield shaped cotyledon, the scutellum
The reserve food materials stored either in cotyledon or in endosperm	The reserve food materials stored in the endosperm.
Embryonic axis is differentiated into radicle and plumule but not protected by any sheath	Embryonic axis is differentiated into radicle and plumule Radicle is protected by Coleorhiza Plumule is protected by Coleoptile
Example - Cicer arientinum	Example - Oryza sativa

The fusion of male and female gamete is called fertilization. Fertilization in angiosperms is double fertilization type.
Pollen germinates on the stigma. Pollen tube produced grows through the style towards the micropyle of the ovule pollen tubes enter into one of the synergids of the embryo sac.
Discharge of male gametes occur syngamy - one gamete and an egg cell fuses to form diploid zygote Triple fusion - The other male gamete fuses with the two haploid female polar nuclei. A triploid primary endosperm nucleus results.

(i) The primary sporogeneous cells undergoes mitotic divisions to form sporogeneous tissue.
(ii) Each cell of the sporogenous tissue is a potential microspore mother cell.
(iii) The microspore mother cell divides meiotically to form four haploid microspores. Microspore soon separates from one another.
(iv) They remain free in the anther locule. Then they develop into pollen grains.

(i) Some plants produce two or three different forms of flowers the length of stamen and style differ in them pollination will take place only between organs of same length.
(ii) So cross pollination is only possible. Distyly (eg) Primula-produces two forms of flowers. 

Pin or long style	Thrum eyed or short style
Long stamen	Short stamen
Long stigmatic papillae	Small stigmatic papillae
Small pollen grains	Large pollen grains

(iii) Stigma of thrum eyed anther of the pin lie in same level, Anther of the thrum eyed stigma of the pin lie in same level.
(iv) So effective cross pollination occurs, Tristyly - (eg) Lythrum
(v) The plant produces three kinds of flowers having difference in length of stamen and style.
(vi) Pollen from flowers of one type pollinate only the other two types can but not their, own type.

Based on the temperature prevailing in an area, Raunkiaer classified the world's vegetation into the following four types.
(i) Megatherms
(ii) Mesotherms
(iii) Microtherms
(iv) Hekistotherms

S. No	Anemochory	Zoochory
a	Dispersal of seeds or fruits by wind.	Dispersal of seeds or fruits by animals
b	Seeds are minute or may have wings.	Seeds or fruit surface may have hooks or sicky glandular hairs are seen.