Mis-sense Mutation	Non-sense Mutation
The mutation where the codon for one amino acid is changed into a codon for another amino acid is called Mis-sense or  non-synonymous mutations.	The mutations where codon for one amino  acid is changed into a termination or stop codon is called Non-sense mutation.

1. Temperature affects the enzymatic action of all the bio-chemical reactions in a plant body.
2. Low temperature with high humidity can spread diseases to plants.
3. The varying temperature with moisture determines the distribution of the vegetation types.

i) To increase yield, vigour, and fertility of the crop.
ii) To increase tolerance to environmental condition, salinity, temperature, and drought.
iii) To prevent the premature falling of buds and fruits, etc.
iv) To improve synchronous maturity.
v) To develop resistance to pathogens and pests.
vi) To develop photosensitive and thermos-sensitive varieties.

Species is considered extinct when none of its members are- alive anywhere in the world
Eg.DODO.

Most abundant gas - CO₂
Effect of CO₂ on the growth of plants
(i) Change in flowering seasons and pollinators
(ii) Change in Species distributional ranges
(iii) Species extinction
(iv) Low agricultural productivity in tropics
(v) Frequent heat waves (Weeds, pests, fungi need warmer temperature)
(vi) Increase of vectors and epidemics
(vii) Strong storms and intense flood damage
(viii) Water crisis and decreased irrigation

Gross Primary Productivity (GPP) is the total amount of food energy or biomass produced in an ecosystem by autotrophs through the process of photosynthesis whereas Net Primary Productivity (NPP) is the proportion of energy which remains after respiration loss in the plant. When we compare GPP with NPP more energy is present in former than in latter.

(i) Bacillus thuringiensis is a soil dwelling bacterium which is commonly used as a biopesticide and contains a toxin called cry toxin. Scientists have introduced this toxin producing genes into plants and have raised genetically engineered insect resistant plants. Eg. Bt-cotton.
(ii) When the insects ingest the toxin crystals their alkaline digestive tract denatures the insoluble crystals making them soluble. The cry toxin then gets inserted into the gut cell membrane and paralyzes the digestive tract. The insect then stops eating and starves to death.

Cryopreservation (- 195.C)
1. Cryopreservation, also known as Cryo conservation.
2. A process by which protoplasts, cells, tissues, organelles, organs, extracellular matrix, enzymes or any other biological materials are subjected to preservation by cooling to very low temperature of -196^oC using liquid nitrogen.
3. At this extreme low temperature any enzymatic or chemical activity of the biological material will be totally stopped and this leads to preservation of material in dormant status.
4. Later these materials can be activated by bringing to room temperature slowly for any experimental work.
5. Protective agents like dimethyl sulphoxide, glycerol or sucrose are added before cryopreservation Process.
6. These protective agents are called cryoprotectants, since they protect the cells, or tissues from the stress of freezing temperature.

Relaxin  
(i) It is a hormone secreted by the placenta and also by the corpus luteum during pregnancy.
(ii) It promotes parturition by relaxing the pelvic joints and by dilation of cervical ligaments with continued powerful contractions.
Oxytocin:
(i) It causes the "Let-Down" reflex.
(ii) The actual ejection of milk from the alveoli of the mammary glands.
(iii) During lactation, oxytocin also stimulates the recently emptied uterus to contract, helping it to return to pre-pregnancy size..

Supplies nutrition to the developing microspores contributes sporopollenin through, ubisch bodies. This plays an important role in pollen wall formation. The pollen kit material is contributed by tapetal cells, and is later, transferred to the pollen surface. Exine protein responsible for rejection reaction are derived from tapetal cells.

i) Self Replication: It should be able to replicate. According to the rule of base pairing and complementarity, both nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) have the ability to direct duplications. Proteins fail to fulfill this criteria.
ii) Stability: It should be stable structurally and chemically. The genetic material should be stable enough not to change with different stages of life cycle, age or with change in physiology of the organism. Stability as one of property of genetic material was clearly evident in Griffith's transforming principle. Heat which killed the bacteria did not destroy some of the properties of genetic material. in DNA the two strands being complementary, if separated (denatured) by heating can come together (renaturation) when appropriate condition is provided. Further, 2' OH group present at every nucleotide in RNA is a reactive group that makes RNA liable and easily degradable. RNA is also known to be catalytic and reactive. Hence, DNA is chemically more stable and chemically less reactive when compared to RNA. Presence of thymine instead of uracil in DNA confers additional stability to DNA.
iii) Information storage: It should be able to express itself in the form of 'Mendelian characters'. RNA can directly code for protein synthesis and can easily express the characters. DNA, however, depends on RNA for synthesis of proteins. Both DNA and RNA can act as genetic material, but DNA being more stable stores the genetic information and RNA transfers the genetic information.
iv) Variation through mutation: It should be able to mutate. Both DNA and RNA are able to mutate. RNA being unstable mutates at a faster rate. Thus viruses having RNA genome with shorter life span can mutate and evolve faster. The above discussion indicates that both RNA and DNA can function as genetic material. DNA is more stable and is preferred for storage of genetic information.

The protein called starch branching enzyme (SBEI) is encoded by the wild-type allele of  the gene (RR) which is dominant. When the seed matures, this enzyme SBEI catalyzes the formation of highly branched starch molecules. Normal gene (R) has become interrupted by the insertion of extra piece of DNA (0.8 kb) into the gene, resulting in r allele. In the homozygous mutant form of the gene (rr) which is recessive, the activity of the enzyme SBEI is lost resulting in wrinkled peas. The wrinkled seed accumulates more sucrose and high water content. Hence the osmotic pressure inside the seed rises. As a result, the seed absorbs more water and when it matures it loses water as it dries. So it becomes wrinkled at maturation. When the seed has at least one copy of normal dominant gene heterozygous, the dominant allele helps to synthesize starch, amylopectin an insoluble carbohydrate, with the osmotic balance which minimises the loss of water resulting in smooth structured round seed.

Competition: It is an interaction between two organisms or species in which both the organisms or species are harmed. Competition is the severest in population that has irregular distribution. Competition is classified into intraspecific and interspecific.
1. Intraspecific competition: It is an interaction between individuals of the same species. This competition is very severe because all the members of species have similar requirements of food, habitat and pollination etc., and they also have similar adaptations to fulfill their needs.
2. Interspecific competition: It is an interaction between individuals of different species. In grassland, many species of grasses grow well as there is little competition when enough nutrients and water is available. During drought shortage of water occurs. A life and death competition starts among the different species of grass lands. Survival in both these competitions is determined by the quantity of nutrients, availability of water and migration to new areas. Different species of herbivores, larvae and grass hopper competing for fodder or forage plants. Trees, shrubs and herbs in a forest struggle for sunlight, water and nutrients and also for pollination and dispersal of fruits and seeds. The Utricularia (Bladderwort) competes with tiny fishes for small crustaceans and insects.

Black gram
(i) Botanical name : Vigna mungo.
(i) Origin and Area of cultivation : Black gram is native to India.
(ii) Earliest archeobotanical evidences record the presence of black gram about 3,500 years ago.
(iii) It is cultivated as a rain fed crop in drier parts of India.
(iv) India contributes to 80% of the global production of black gram.
(v) important states growing black gram in India are Uttar Pradesh, Chattisgarh and Karnataka.
Uses:
(i) Black gram is eaten whole or split, boiled or roasted or ground into flour.
(ii) Black gram batter is a major ingredients for the preparation of popular Southern Indian breakfast dishes.
(iii) Split pulse is used in seasoning Indian curries.

Afforestation is planting of trees where there was no previous tree coverage and the conversion of non-forested lands into forests by planting suitable trees to retrieve the vegetation. Example: Slopes of dams afforested to reduce water run-off, erosion and siltation. It can also provide a range of environmental services including carbon sequestration, water retention.
The Man who Single handedly Created a Dense Forest
(i) Jadav "Molai" Payeng (born 1963) is an environmental activist has single-handedly planted a forest in the middle of a barren wasteland.
(ii) This Forest Man of India has transformed the world's largest river island, Majuli, located on one of India's major rivers, the Brahmaputra, into a dense forest, home to rhinos, deers, elephants, tigers, and birds.
(iii) And today his forest is larger than CentraI Park.

Types of succession
(a) Primary succession
The development of plant community in a barren area where no community existed before is called primary succession.
The plants which colonize first in a barren area is called pioneer species or primary community or primary colonies.
Generally, Primary succession takes a very, long time for the occurrence in any region.
Examples: Microbes, Lichen, Mosses.
The forest destroyed by fire and excessive lumbering may be re-occupied by herbs over period of times.
(b) Secondary succession
The development of a plant community in an area where an already developed community has been destroyed by some natural disturbance (Fire, flood, human activity) is known as secondary succession
Generally, this succession takes less time than the time taken for primary succession.
Example: The forest destroyed by fire and excessive lumbering may be re-occupied by herbs over Period of times.
(c) Autogenic succession
Autogenic succession occurs as a result of biotic factors
The vegetation reacts with its environment and modifies its own environment causing its own replacement by new communities. This is known as autogenic succession.
Example: In forest ecosystem, the larger trees produce broader leaves providing shade to the forest floor area. It affects the shrubs and herbs which require more light (heliophytes) but supports the shade tolerant species (sciophytes) to grow well.
(d) Allogenic succession
Allogeneic succession occurs as a result of abiotic factors.
The replacement of existing community is caused by other external factors (soil erosion, leaching, etc.,) and not by existing organisms.
Example: In a forest ecosystem soil erosion and leaching alter the nutrient value of the soil leading to the change of vegetation in that area.
(e) Autotrophic succession
If the autotrophic organisms like green plants are dominant during the early stages of succession it is called autotrophic succession, this occurs in the habitat which is rich in inorganic substances.
Since, green plants dominate in the beginning of this succession, there is a gradual increase in organic matter and subsequently the energy flow in the ecosystem.
(f) Heterotrophic succession
If heterotrophic organisms like bacteria, fungi, actinomycetes, and animals are dominant during the early stages of succession it is called heterotrophic succession.
Such a succession takes place in organic habitats.
Since heterotrophs dominate in the beginning of such succession, there will be a gradual decrease in the energy content.

Adaptation is a dynamic evolutionary process that fits organisms to their environment and enhancing their evolutionary fitness.
(a) Structural adaptations:
1. The external and internal structures of animals can help them to adapt better to their environment. Some of the most common examples are mammals growing thicker fur to survive freezing climates.
2. Some of the most attractive adaptations in nature occur for reasons of crypsis. (e.g: Camouflage) and mimicry.
3. Cryptic animals are those which camouflage perfectly with their environment and are almost impossible to detect. Certain reptiles and insects such as chameleons and stick insects show this type of adaptation, which helps in prey capture or to evade from predators. Likewise, horse legs are suitable for fast running and adapted for grasslands or plains and similar terrestrial environments.
(b) Behavioural adaptations:
1. Action and behaviour of animals are instinctive or learned. Animals develop certain behavioural traits or adaptations for survival.
2. Fleeing from a predator, hiding during sleep, seeking refuge from climate change or moving to find different food sources are all behavioural adaptations.
3. The two most characteristic forms of behavioural adaptations are migration and courtship.
4. Migration allows the animals to find better resources or evade threat.
5. Courtship is a set of behavioural patterns to find a made to reproduce.
6. Most nocturnal animals remain underground (or) inactive during daytime.
7. This is a modification of their feeding and activity pattern (or) habit (or) behaviour.
(c) Physiological adaptations:
1. The adaptations of organisms that help them to live and survive in their environment with unique niches.
2. Example: Lions have sharp canines to hunt and tear meat of preys and digestive system suitable for digesting raw meat.
3. The two most well-known physiological adaptations are hibernation and aestivation.
4. These are two different types of inactivity where the metabolic rate slows down so much that the animal can survive without eating or drinking.
5. Aquatic medium and terrestrial habitats have their own respective environmental conditions. Hence organisms have to evolve appropriate adaptations to select suitable habitats and niches.

1. Hugo de Vries by his experiment suggest that variations is caused due to mutation among the genetic sequence of an individual.
2. Hugo de vries for the first time gave the term saltation which stands for huge mutation in a single step resulting in speciation.
3. Darwin during his voyage in H.M.S. Beagle he found that living organism share similar features existed from million of years.
4. Evolution is a sequential process that leads to betterment of life forms to cope with change in environment and that is passed to successive generation called as natural selection.
5. Mutation is a random process and direction which is not specific.

(i) The primary sporogeneous cells undergoes mitotic divisions to form sporogeneous tissue.
(ii) Each cell of the sporogenous tissue is a potential microspore mother cell.
(iii) The microspore mother cell divides meiotically to form four haploid microspores. Microspore soon separates from one another.
(iv) They remain free in the anther locule. Then they develop into pollen grains.

There are ten base pairs in each turn with a distance of 0.34 x 10^-9m between two adjacent base pairs.

Typhoid is caused by Salmonella typhi. Widal test can be done to confirm typhoid

(a) I^Al^O - A blood group person
(b) 1^O1^O - O blood group person

Kodo millet is a good diuretic and cures constipation. Helps to reduce obesity, blood sugar and blood pressure.

In artificial parthenogenesis, the unfertilized egg (ovum) is induced to develop into a complete individual by physical or chemical stimuli. E.g. Annelid and seaurchin eggs.

Lysozyme present in saliva acts as an antibacterial agent and cleaves the bacterial cell wall.

Soil formation is initiated by the weathering process. Biological weathering takes place when organisms like bacteria, fungi, lichens & plants help in the breakdown of rocks through the production of acids & certain chemical substances.

1. Avoid sex with unknown partner/multiple partner
2. Use condoms.
3. In case of doubt, consult a doctor for diagnosis and get complete treatment.

Development of female gamete is called oogenesis. Oogenesis starts at the beginning of puberty.
Development of male gamete is called spermatogenesis. Spermatogenesis starts at puberty