Gene mutation refers to the changes in the structure of the gene. It is also called gene / point mutation. It alters the phenotype of an organism and produces variations in their off springs.

Flippers of whale, wings of bat, wings of bird and forelimb of a horse.

Biomes are large regions of Earth that have similar or common vegetation and climatic conditions. They play a crucial role in sustaining life on Earth. They are defined by their soil, climate, flora, and fauna. Biomes have distinct biological communities that have been formed in response to a Shared physio-chemical climate.

Deforestation is the destruction of forests in order to clear the land and make it available for other uses.

Pollutants from anthropogenic activities like effluents from the industries and homes can radically accelerate the aging process. This phenomenon is known as Cultural or Accelerated Eutrophication

AUG has dual functions. It acts as a initiator codon and also codes for the amino acid methionine.

(a) Self replication
(b) Information storage
(c) Stability
(d) Variation through mutation

Oscillatoria, Nostoc, Anabaena, Tolypothrix

Broad-spectrum antibiotics act against a wide range of disease-causing bacteria.
Narrow-spectrum antibiotics are active against a selected group of bacterial types.

India has 104 National Parks. Guindy National Park (Chennai) and Mudumalai National Park (Nilgiris) are located in Tamil Nadu.

A species is considered to be locally extinct when it is no longer found in an area it once inhabited but is still found elsewhere in the wild.

Cocaine is obtained from Erythroxylum coca.
Heroin is obtained from poppy plant.

Due to the establishment of immunological memory of the first encounter, the secondary immune response highly intense and effective

There are four kinds of ELISA namely, Direct ELISA, Indirect ELISA, sandwich ELISA and competitive ELISA

A. Plasmid
B. rDNA / chimeric DNA

Genes in the non-homologous region of the Y-chromosome are inherited directly from male to male. In humans, the Y-linked or holandric genes for hypertrichosis (excessive development of hairs on pinna of the ear) are transmitted directly from father to son, because males inherit the Y chromosome from the father. Female inherits only X chromosome from the father and are not affected.

Blotting refers to the process of immobilization of sample nucleic acids on solid support (nitrocellulose or nylon membranes). The blotted nucleic acids are then used as target in the hybridization experiments for their specific detection.

Fermentation refers to the metabolic process in which organic molecules (normally glucose) are converted into acids, gases, or alcohol in the absence of oxygen or any electron transport chain with oxygen.

(a) Silent mutation
(b) Mis-sense mutation
(c) Non-sense mutation
(d) Frameshift mutation

The term 'crossing over' was coined by Morgan (1912). It takes place during pachytene stage of prophase I of meiosis.

(a) Pleiotropism
(b) Poly genic inheritance

The term genotype is the genetic constitution of an individual. The term phenotype refers to the observable characteristic of an organism.

(i) Continuous self-pollination, generation after generation results in weaker progeny.
(ii) Chances of producing new species and varieties are meager.

In Asteraceae species, the inner layer of integument get specialized for nourishing the embryosac and this is called integumentary tapetum or endothelium.

A pollinium is a coherent mass of pollen grains of an anther
Example: Calotropis.

Sea grasses and mangroves of Estuarine and coastal ecosystems are the most efficient in carbon sequestration. Hence, these ecosystems are called as "Blue carbon ecosystems".

(a) Partial stem parasite - E.g: Loranthus.
(b) Partial root parasite - E.g: Santalum.

Nitrogen -78% , Oxygen -21 %, Carbon-di-oxide -0.03%, Argon and other gases - 0.93%.

(a) Grazing food chain
(b) Detritus food chain

Grey carbon - carbon stored in fossil fuel (coal, oil and biogas deposits in the lithosphere).
Black carbon - carbon emitted from gas, diesel engine and coal fired power plants.

Decomposers are organisms that decompose the dead plants and animals to release organic and inorganic nutrients into the environment which are again reused by plants. Example: Bacteria, Actinomycetes and Fungi.

ELSI which represents ethical, legal and social implications of biotechnology broadly covers the relationship between biotechnology and society with particular reference to ethical and legal aspects.

Protoplasts are the cells without a cell wall, bounded by cell membrane. Fluorescein diacetate (FDA) is used to test the viability of protoplast.

Advantage: Polyploidy often exhibit hybrid vigour and increased tolerance to biotic and abiotic stresses.
Disadvantage: Polyploidy results in reduced fertility due to meiotic error resulting in seedless varieties.

Bio-pesticides are biologically based agents used for the control of plant pests. They are in high use due to their non-toxic, cheaper and eco-friendly characteristics as compared to chemical or synthetic pesticides.

Social forestry refers to the management of forests and afforestation on barren lands with the purpose of helping the environmental, social and rural development and benefits.

Dobson Unit is the unit of measurement for total ozone. One DU is the number of molecules of ozone that would be required to create a layer of pure ozone 0.01 millimeter thick at a temperature of 0° C and a pressure of 1 atmosphere.

Spices are accessory foods mainly used for flavouring during food preparation to improve their palatability. Spices are aromatic plant products and are characterized by sweet or bitter taste. Spices are added in minimal quantities during the cooking process. For example black pepper. Condiments, on the other hand, are flavouring substances having a sharp taste and are usually added to food after cooking. For example, curry leaves.

Millets are gluten free and have less glycemic index, hence it is good for diabetic patients.

Gene Mutation, Chromosomal mutation, Genetic recombination, Natural selection, Reproductive isolation.

log S = log C + Z log A
where S = Species richness
A = Area
Z = Slope of the line (regression coefficient)
C = Y-intercept

lt is an enzyme and can be used to separate milk into solid curds for cheese making

Oenology is the science and study of wine and wine making.

When resources are in more than adequate to meet the demands of the organisms seeking them, competition does not occur, but when inadequate to satisfy the need of the organisms seeking them, the weakest, least adapted, or least aggressive individuals are often forced to face challenges. This phenomenon is known as the competitive exclusion principle of Hardin.

The meiotic divisions I & II take place in order to ensure that the ovum is haploid since normal chromosomal number is important for formation of normal zygote. Further polar bodies have less cellular contents and are small since they do not participate in fertilization most of the cellular contents lie in the ovum.

In polymerase chain reaction, the double stranded DNA of interest is denatured to separate into two individual strands by high temperature. This is called denaturation

The process of formation of placenta which is the intimate connection between foetus and uterine wall of the mother for exchange of nutrients is called Placentation.

It is a toxin produced by lysis of insected red blood cells in a person affected with malaria. This causes malaria symptoms such as fever, chills, shivering etc.,

(i) Regeneration is regrowth in the injured region.
(ii) Regeneration is of two types
(a) morphallaxis
(b) epimorphosis.