psychoactive drugs
1	Opium Poppy	Papaver somniferun (Family: Papaveraceae)	Native: South East Europe, Western Asia. Cultivated in MP, Rajasthan, UP (With license)	Morphine strong analgesic during surgery - sleep, relieving Pain.
2	Cannabis/ Marijuana	Cannabis sativa (Family: Cannabiaceae)	Native: Marijuana to China Cultivated in Gujarat, HP, Uttarkand, UR, MP [with license)	1. Trans - tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) - cures hypertension, Glucoma, nausea of cancer patients of radio and chemotherapy. 2. Cures bronchial disorder, asthma.

Afforestation is planting of trees where there was no previous tree coverage and the conversion of non-forested lands into forests by planting suitable trees to retrieve the vegetation. Example: Slopes of dams afforested to reduce water run-off, erosion and siltation. It can also provide a range of environmental services including carbon sequestration, water retention.
The Man who Single handedly Created a Dense Forest
(i) Jadav "Molai" Payeng (born 1963) is an environmental activist has single-handedly planted a forest in the middle of a barren wasteland.
(ii) This Forest Man of India has transformed the world's largest river island, Majuli, located on one of India's major rivers, the Brahmaputra, into a dense forest, home to rhinos, deers, elephants, tigers, and birds.
(iii) And today his forest is larger than CentraI Park.

Type of succession
Hydrosere
(i) The succession in a freshwater ecosystem is also referred to as hydrosere
(ii) Succession in a pond, begins with colonization of the pioneer's like phytoplankton and finally ends with the formation of climax community like forest stage. It includes the following stages
(a) Phytoplankton stage
It is the first stage of succession consisting of the pioneer Community like blue green algae, green algae, diatoms, bacteria, etc.,
The colonization of these organisms enrich the amount of organic matter and nutrients of pond due to their life activities and death.
This favors the development of the next several stages
(b) Submerged plant stage
As the result of death and decomposition of planktons, silt brought from land by rain water, lead to a loose mud formation at the bottom of the pond. Hence, the rooted submerged hydrophytes begin to appear on the new substratum.
Example: Chara, Utricularia, Vallisneria and Hydrilla etc.
The death and decay of these plants will build up the substratum of pond to become shallow. Therefore, this habitat now replaces another group of plants which are of floating type.
(c) Submerged free floating stage
During this stage, the depth of the pond will become almost 2-5 feet
Hence, the rooted hydrophytic plants and with floating large leaves start colonising the pond.
Example: Rooted floating plants like Nelumbo, Nymphaea and Trapa. Some free floating species like Azolla, Lemna, Wolffia and Pistia are also present in this stage.
By death and decomposition of these plants, further the pond becomes more shallow.
Due to this reason, floating plant species is gradually replaced by another species which makes new several stage.
(d) Reed-swamp stage
It is also called an amphibious stage.
During this stage, rooted floating plants are replaced by plants which can live successfully in aquatic as well as aerial environment.
Example: Typha, Phragmites, Sagittaria and Scirpus etc. At the end of this stage, water level is very much reduced, making it unsuitable for the continuous growth of amphibious Plants.
(e) Marsh meadow stage
When the pond becomes swallowed due to decreasing water level
Species of Cyperaceae and Poaceae such as Carex, Iuncus, Cyperus and Eleocharis colonise the area
They form a mat-like vegetation with the help of their much branched root system.
This leads to an absorption and loss of large quantity of water
At the end of this stage, the soil becomes dry and the marshy vegetation disappears gradually and leads to shurb stage
(d) Shrub stage
As the disappearance of marshy vegetation continues, soil becomes dry.
Hence, these areas are now invaded by terrestrial plants like shrubs (Salix and Cornus) and trees (Populus and Alnus).
These plants absorb large quantity of water and make the habitat dry.
Further, the accumulation of humus with a rich flora of microorganisms produce minerals in the soil, ultimately favouring the arrival of new tree species in the area
(e) Forest stage
It is the climax community of hydrosere.
A variety of trees invade the area and develop any one of the diverse type of vegetation.
Example: Temperate mixed forest (Ulmus, Acer and Quercus), Tropical rain forest (Artocarpus and Cinnamomum) and Tropical deciduous forest (Bamboo and Tectona).
In the 7 stages of hydrosere succession, stage 1 is occupied by pioneer community, while the stage 7 is occupied by the climax community. The stages 2 to 6 are occupied by several communities,

Dispersal by Animals (Zoochory)
Birds and mammals, including human beings play an efficient and important role in the dispersal of fruit and seeds. They have the following devices.
i. Hooked fruit: The surface of the fruit or seeds have hooks (Xanthium), barbs (Andropogon), spines (Aristida) by means of which they adhere to the body of animals or clothes of human beings and get dispersed.
ii. Sticky fruits and seeds:
a. Some fruits have sticky glandular hairs by which they adhere to the fur of grazing animals. Example: Boerhaavia and Cleome.
b. Some fruits have viscid layer which adhere to the beak of the bird which eat them and when they rub them on to the branch of the tree, they disperse and germinate. Example: Cordia and Alangium.
iii. Fleshy fruits: Some fleshy fruits with conspicuous colours are dispersed by human beings to distant places after consumption.
Example: Mango and Diplocyclos

Soil is commonly stratified into horizons at different depth. These layers differ in their physical, chemical and biological properties. This succession of super-imposed horizons is called soil profile.
Horizon Description O-Horizon (Organic horizon) Humus It consists of fresh or partially decomposed organic matter.
01 - Freshly fallen leaves, twigs, flowers and fruits.
02 - Dead plants, animals and their excreta decomposed by micro-organisms.
Usually absent in agricultural and deserts. A-Horizon
(Leached horizon)
Topsoil - Often rich in humus and minerals. It consists of top soil with humus, living creatures and in-organic minerals.
A1 - Dark and rich in organic matter because of mixture of organic and mineral matters.
A2 - Light coloured layer with large sized mineral particles. B-Horizon (Accumulation horizon) (Subsoil - Poor in humus, rich in minerals) It consists of iron, aluminium and silica rich clay organic compounds. C - Horizon (partially weathered horizon) Weathered rock Fragments - Little or no plant or animal life. It consists of parent materials of soil, composed of little amount of organic matters without life forms. R-Horizon (Parent material) Bedrock It is a parent bed rock upon which underground water is found.

Properties of soil
(i) Texture of soil - The texture of soil is determined by the size of the soil particles. The types of soil include sand, silt and clay on the basis of their size differences.
(ii) Porosity - The space present between soil particles in a given volume of soil are called pore spaces. The percentage of soil volume occupied by pore space or by the interstitial spaces is called porosity of the soil.
(iii) Permeability of soil - The characteristic of soil that determines the movement of water through pore spaces is known as soil permeability. Soil permeability is directly dependent on the pore size. Water holding capacity of the soil is inversely dependent on soil porosity.
(iv) Soil Temperature - Soil gets its heat energy from solar radiation, decomposing organic matter, and heat from the interior of the earth. Soil temperature affects the germination of seeds, growth of roots and biological activity of soil-inhabiting micro-and macro-organisms.
(v) Soil water - In soil, water is not only important as a solvent and transporting agent, but also maintains soil texture, arrangement, and compactness of soil particles, making soil habitable for plants and animals.

The main goal of the Kyoto protocol is to control emissions of the main Anthropogenic (human-emitted) greenhouse gases (GHGs) in ways that reflect underlying national difference in GHG emission, wealth and capacity to make the reductions.

1. Production of insulin by recombinant DNA technology started in the late 1970s.
2. This technique involved in the insertion of human insulin gene on the plasmids of E. Coli. The polypeptide chains are synthesized as a precursor called pre-proinsulin as it contains A and B segments linked by a third chain (c) and preceded by a leader sequence.
3. The leader sequence is removed after translation and 'c' chain is excised, leaving the A and B polypeptide chains.
4. Insulin was the first ever pharmaceutical product of r-DNA, technology.

(i) Species have been evolving and becoming extinct since the origin of life. But species are now becoming extinct at a faster rate. This is destabilizing the ecological stability and the distribution of biological diversity on earth.
(ii) The current rate of biodiversity loss is 100-1000 times higher than the naturally occurring extinction rate. This loss of biodiversity will lead to a loss in diversity of species. It has a huge impact on plant, animal and human life. The negative effect includes dramatic influence on food web. Even a reduction in one species can affect the entire Food chain. This will affect the food sources of many species and will affect the stability of a community.
(iii) Many species may die due to lack of food. Thus species diversity will stabilize a community and also help the community to rebuild in case of any changes/ challenges faced by the community.

S. No	Primary Treatment	Secondary Treatment
i.	It involves the physical removal of solid, and particulate organic and inorganic materials fro the sewage through filtration and sedimentation. The supernatant is the effluent which is taken for secondary treatment.	The process takes place in large aeration tanks with vigorous growth of microbes. The organisms break down the organic matter and reduces the Biological oxygen demand it is further passed into a setting tank where are bacterial 'flocs' sediment to form the activated sludge.
ii.	It is a total physical process.	It is a biological process.
iii.	The solid waste is mainly removed.	The dissolved organic waste is removed by this process by aerobic and anaerobic means.
iv	It is a similar process.	It is more time consuming and a major part of sewage treatment.
v.	No by products are produced	Biogas production occurs.

Artificial Seed
1. Artificial seeds or synthetic seeds (synseeds) are produced by using embryoids (somatic embryos) obtained through in vitro culture.
2. They may even be derived from single cells from any part of the plant that later divide to form cell mass containing dense cyptoplasm, large nucleus, starch grains, proteins, and oils etc.
3. To prepare the artificial seeds different inert materials are used for coating the somatic embryoids like agrose and sodium alginate.

Similarities found in Neanderthal man and Homo sapiens.
(i) They knew to protect their bodies. Neanderthal man used animal hides to protect their bodies.
(ii) They knew the use of fire.
(iii) They buried their dead.

Bioremediation:
It is defined as the use of microorganisms or plants to clean up environmental pollution.
Some examples of bioremediation technologies are :
(i) Phytoremediation - use of plants to bring about remediation of environmental pollutants.
(ii) Mycoremediation - use of fungi to bring about remediation of environmental pollutants.
(iii) Bioventing is the process that increases the oxygen or air flow to accelerate the degradation of environmental pollutants.
(iv) Bioleaching is the use of microorganisms in solution to recover metal pollutants from contaminated sites
(v) Bioaugmentation is the addition of selected microbes to speed up degradation process.
(vi) Composting is the process by which the solid waste is composted by the use of microbes into manure which acts as a nutrient for plant growth.
(vii) Rhizofiltration is the uptake of metals or degradation of organic compounds by rhizosphere microorganisms
(viii) Rhizostimulation is the stimulation of plant growth by the rhizosphere by providing better growth condition or reduction in toxic materials

(a) The figure 'F' represent ovulation.
Stage of oogenesis - Ovulatory or luteal stage of oogenesis
(b) (i) The ovarian hormone is progesterone which is released during ovulation.
(ii) The pituitary hormones are the follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and Luteinizing hormone (LSH) which are released during and ovulation from anterior pituitary gland.
(c) The endometrium of the uterus gets thickened and blood supply to the endometrium increase.
(d) Figure 'C' represents the secondary follicle and figure h represents the degenerating corpus luteum.

Secondary follicle	Corpus luteurn
lt is surrounded by layers of granulosa cells	Absence of granulosa cells
Theca layer is present	Theca layer is absent.

Application of the laws of genetics for the improvement of human race is called eugenics.
Two methods of Eugenics are:
(i) Constructive method or Positive eugenics
(ii) Restrictive method or Negative eugenics
(i) Positive eugenics: Positive eugenics attempts to increase consistently better or desirable germplasm and to preserve the best germplasm of the society. The desirable traits can be increased by adopting the following measures:
(a) Early marriage of those having desirable traits
(b) Subsiding the fit and establishing sperm and egg banks of precious germ plasm.
(c) Educating the basic principles of genetics and eugenics.
(d) Improvement of environmental conditions.
(e) Promotion of genetic research.
(ii) Negative eugenics: Negative eugenics attempts to eliminate the defective germplasm of the society by adopting the following measures:
(a) Sexual separation of the defectives
(b) Sterilization of the defectives
(c Control of immigration and
(d) Regulation of marriages

Zea mays is a monoecious plant with
(i) Male inflorescence - the tassel with staminateflowers
(ii) Female inflorescence - ear or cob with pistillate flowers. 
(iii) Unisexuality in maize is through selective abortion of stamens - in ear florets and Pistils - in tassel florets. 
(iv) A substitution of two single gene pairs 'ba' for barren plant and 'ts' - for tassel seed makes the differences between monoecious and dioecious (rare) maize plants. 
(v) The allele for barren plant (ba) when homozygous makes the stalk staminate by eliminating silk and ears. 
(vi) The allele for tassel seed (ts) transforms tassel into a pistillate flower. 
(vii) The development of both inflorescence is the result of selective abortion of pistils or stamens. 

(a) 

Binary Fission in Amoeba	Multiple fission in Plasmodium
lt results in the production of two individuals from a single parent.	It results in the production of several individuals
lt occurs under favourable conditions	It occurs both under favourable and unfavourable conditions
Nucleus of the parent cell divides only once to form two daughter nuclei	Nucleus of the parent cell undergoes repeated divisions to form a number of daughter nuclei
Cytoplasm divides after nuclear division	Cytoplasm does not divide after each nuclear division but divides during favourable condition
No part of parent body is left unused (e,g: Amoeba)	A part of the body (covering and residuai cytoplasm) is left unused. (e,g: Paramecium)

(b) Budding in yeast and budding in hydra

Budding in Yeast	Budding in Hydra
During budding the cell wall of the parent cell bulges out in the form of an out growth as bud	During budding the ectoderm cells increase and form a small elevation on the body surface as bud.
The parent nucleus divides into two daughter nuclei one of which migrates into bud.	Ectoderm and endoderm are pushed out to form the bud. The bud contains an interior lumen in continuation with parent's gastro vascular cavity (coelenteron)
As the bud enlarges and is fully formed, it is separated from the parentcell and grows into mature yeast. Sometimes a bud may produce another bud over it which is still attached to parent cell forming a false mycelium (or) pseudomycelium	The bud enlarges, develops a mouth and a circle of tentacles at its free end. When fully grown, the bud constricts at the base and finally separates from the parent body and leads an independent life

(c) Regeneration is regrowth in the injured region

Regeneration in Lizard	Regeneration in Planaria
This type of regeneration comes under epimorphosis type.	This type of regeneration comes under morphallaxis type
Several body parts can develop.	When the body is cut into several pieces, each piece can regenerate the lost parts and develops into a whole individual

Interlocus interactions take place between the alleles at different loci i.e. between alleles of different genes
Dominant Epistasis: It is a gene interaction in which 2 alleles of a gene at one locus interfere & suppress or mask the phenotypic expression or mask the phenotypic expression of a different pair of alleles of another gene at another locus.
The gene that suppresses or masks the phenotypic expression of a gene at another locus is known as epistatic. The gene whose expression is interfered by non-allelic genes & prevents from exhibiting its character is known as hypostatic.
When both the genes are present together, the phenotype is determined by the epistatic gene and not by the hypostatic gene.
In the summer squash, the fruit colour locus has a dominant allele 'W' for white colour & a recessive allele 'w' for coloured fruit.
'W' allele is donminant that masks the expression of any colour. In another locus hypostatic allele 'G' is for yellow fruit and its recessive allele 'g' for green fruit.
In the first locus the white is dominant to colour where as in the second locus yellow is dominant to green.
When the white fruit with genotype WWgg is crossed with yellow fruit with genotype wwGG, the F1 plants have white fruit and are heterozygous (WwGg).
When F1 heterozygous plants are crossed they give rise to F2 with the phenotypic ratio of 12 white:3 yellow: 1 green.

Since W is epistatic to the alleles 'G' and 'g'. the white which is dominant, masks the effect of yellow or green.
Homozygous recessive ww genotypes only can give the coloured fruits (4/16).
Double recessive 'wwgg' will give green fruit (1/16).
The Plants having only 'G' in its genotype (wwGg or wwGG) will give the yellow fruit(3/16).

Dicot Seed	Monocot Seed
Seed coat differentiated into outer hard testa, inner thin membranous tegmen.	Seed coat brownish membranous unilayer closely adhered to the grain
Two cotyledons, laterally attached to the embryonic axis	Embryo consists of one shield shaped cotyledon, the scutellum
The reserve food materials stored either in cotyledon or in endosperm	The reserve food materials stored in the endosperm.
Embryonic axis is differentiated into radicle and plumule but not protected by any sheath	Embryonic axis is differentiated into radicle and plumule Radicle is protected by Coleorhiza Plumule is protected by Coleoptile
Example - Cicer arientinum	Example - Oryza sativa

(i) The primary sporogeneous cells undergoes mitotic divisions to form sporogeneous tissue.
(ii) Each cell of the sporogenous tissue is a potential microspore mother cell.
(iii) The microspore mother cell divides meiotically to form four haploid microspores. Microspore soon separates from one another.
(iv) They remain free in the anther locule. Then they develop into pollen grains.

Euheterosis: True heterosis
(i) Mutational Euheterosis: Simplest type Often lethal, recessive mutant genes from cross pollinated genes.
(ii) Balanced Euheterosis: Well balanced gene combinations, more adaptive to environmental conditions and agricultural.
Pseudo heterosis: Also called luxuriance, has superiority over parents in vegetative growth but not in yield and adaptation, usually sterile or poorly fertile.

Even though India is one of the 17 identified megadiverse countries of the world, it faces lots of threats to its biodiversity.
(i) Apart from natural causes, human activities, both directly and indirectly are today's main reason for habitat loss and biodiversity loss.
(ii) Fragmentation and degradation due to agricultural practices, extraction (mining, fishing, logging, harvesting) and development (settlements, industrial and associated infrastructures) lead to habitat loss and fragmentation leads to the formation of isolated, small and scattered populations and as endangered species.

1. Amniocentesis is the pre-natal diagnostic technique in which a sample of amniotic fluid from the womb of a pregnant woman is taken during early stages of embryonic development and the cells are cultured and analysed synthetically.
2. Any chromosomal disorder or a metabolic error can be detected and if necessary MTP can be advised.
3. But this technique is misused for knowing the sex of the foetus followed by female foeticide.
4. Female foeticide refers to aborting the female in the mother's womb.
5. In order to prevent female foeticide and infanticide, Government of India has taken various steps like PCPNDT Act .(preconception and prenatal diagnostic technique act-1994) enacted to ban the identification of sex and to prevent the use of prenatal diagnostic techniques for selective abortion.

RNA is said to be as the first genetic material because
1. RNA can directly code for protein synthesis of protein and hence can easily expresses the character. It is the genetic material in many viruses.
2. RNA can also act as a catalyst; there are some important biothemical reactions in living systems that are catalyzed, by RNAs and not as proteins.
3. Many essential life processes like splicing translation, etc have evolved around RNA.

The common cold has evaded medical sciences advances for two primary reasons:
(i) The first issue is that the colds are most often caused by a rhinoviruses-a large family of viruses with hundreds of variants. This makes vaccination an impossibility and gives our immune system a challenging task.
(ii) Secondly, these viruses evolve rapidly so even if we could produce vaccines to cover the full spectrum of rhinoviruses, they would quickly become resistant.