Adsorption leads to decrease in randomnes (entropy).i.e, ΔS < 0 for the adsorption to occur, ΔG slhould be -ve. We know that ΔG = ΔH - TΔS if ΔS is -ve, TΔS is +ve.It means that ΔG will become negative only when ΔH is -ve and ΔH > TΔS.

HPO₄²⁻ can have the ability to accept a proton to form H₂PO₄^-
It can also have the ability to donate a proton to form PO₄^-3

	A	⟶	B	C	D
Initial rate (M s-1)	a		0	0	0
Reaction number	x	-	-	-	-
After time t	(a - x)		x	x	x
Total number of moles	= (a + 2x)

Complexes given in other options (a), (c) and (d) have symmetry elements and hence they are optically inactive.

Electrochemical cell is a device which interconverts chemical into electrical energy and vice versa. It consists of two separate electrodes which are in contact with an electrolyte solution.

(ii) 2,4-dichlorobenzaldehyde.

(iii) ethanal

(i) Neutralisation of chargers of ion will taken place and hence precipitation will take place (ie) Fe³⁺ and S^2- ion changes are neutralized. No new compounds are formed.
(ii) Fe(OH)₃ is a positive Sol
(iii) As₂S₃ is a negative Sol

The solubility product of a compound is defined as the product of the molar concentration of the constituent ions, each raised to the power of its stoichiometric co - efficient in a balanced equilibrium equation.
X_mY_n (s) \(\rightleftharpoons\) mXⁿ⁺ _(aq) + nY^m-_(aq)
K_sp=[Xⁿ⁺]^m[Y^m-]ⁿ

The order of the reaction is zero.

This is due to,
(i) Lowbond dissociation enthalpy of F-F-bond
(ii) High hydration enthalpy of F^-.

Sulphide ores are generally roasted in reverberatory furnace in free supply of air below its melting point. Ore changes to oxide with larger surface area and volatile impurities are removed.
\(2ZnS+{ 3O }_{ 2 }\overset { \Delta }{ \longrightarrow } 2ZnO+{ 2SO }_{ 2 }\)
\(2PbS+{ 3O }_{ 2 }\overset { \Delta }{ \longrightarrow } pbO+{ 2SO }_{ 2 }\)

Coordination number is the number of co-ordinate bonds formed by the ligands with the central metal atom.

K = 1.54 \(\times\) 10^-3s^-1; t_1/2 = ?
\({ t }_{ \frac { 1 }{ 2 } }=\frac { 0.693 }{ k } \)
\(=\frac { 0.693 }{ 1.54\times { 10 }^{ -3 } } \)
= 450 s

The imperfection occurs due to missing atoms, displaced atoms or extra atoms, is named as a point defect. Such defects arise due to imperfect packing during the original crystallisation or they may arise from thermal vibrations of atoms at elevated temperatures.

(i) Zeolites are three-dimensional crystalline solids containing Al, Si and O in their regular three dimensional framework.
(ii) They are hydrated sodium alumino silicates with general formula Na₂O(AI₂O₃).·x(SiO₂)·yH₂O
(x = 2 to 10; y = 2 to 6).
(iii) Zeolites have porous structure in which the monovalent sodium ions and water molecules are loosely held.
(iv) The Si and Al atoms are tetrahedrally coordinated with each other through shared oxygen atoms.
(v) Zeolites are similar to clay minerals but they differ in their crystalline structure.
(vi) Zeolites have a three dimensional crystalline structure looks like a honeycomb consisting of a network of interconnected tunnels and cages.
(vii) Water molecules moves freely in and out of these pores but the zeolite framework remains rigid
(viii) Another special aspect of this structure is that the pore/channel sizes are nearly uniform, allowing the crystal to act as a molecular sieve.

Catenation is an ability of an element to form chain of atoms.
The conditions for catenation.
(a) The valency of element is greater than or equal to two.
(b) Element should have an ability to bond with itself
(c) The self bond must be as strong as Its bond with other elements
(d) Kinetic inertness of catenated compound towards other molecules.
(e) Carbon possesses all the above properties and forms a wide range of compounds with itself and with other elements such as H, O, N, S and halogens.

(i) A - C₆H₅NO₂ - Nitro benzene
(ii) B - C₆H₅NH₂ - Aniline
(iii) C - C₆H₅NC - Phenyl Carbylamine

Vitamin	Sources	Functions	Deficiency Disease
Vitamin B12 (Cobalamin)	Egg, Meat, Fish	Co-enzyme in amino acid metabolism, Red blood cells maturation	Pernicious Anaemia
Vitamin C (Ascorbic acid)	Citrus fruits (Orange, Lemon etc ... ), Tomato Arnla, Leafy Vegetables	Coenzyme in Antioxidant, building of collagen	Scurvy (bleeding gums)

The free radical polymeristion of the monomer, 2-c Woro buta -1,3-diene( chloroprene) gives neoprene.

It is superior to rubber and resistant to chemical action.
Uses: It is used in the manufacture of chemical containers, conveyer belts

(i) Alcohols are weakly basic in nature so easily in presence of strong acids.
(ii) Due to the presence of +ve charge on the oxygen atom, C-O in protonated alcohols became weak hence easily cleaved by halide ions to form alkyl halides.
(iii) Where as phenols are much weaker bases due to delocalisation of the lone pair of electrons on the oxygen atom due to resonance and so are not easily protonated.
(iv) The C-O bond in phenols has some double bond character; hence not easily cleaved by halide ions to form respective alkyl halides.

Zn_(S)+2AgNO₃ ⟶ 2Ag_(S) +Zn(NO₃)₂
Zn_(s)|Zn_aq ²⁺||Ag_aq⁺|Ag_(s)
Anode Half cell Cathode Half cell
In this cell reaction, Zn is oxidised to Zn²⁺ and Ag²⁺ is reduced to Ag.

\(\underset {Phenol} {\mathrm{C}_{6} \mathrm{H}_{5} \mathrm{OH}}+\mathrm{Zn}(\text { dust }) \rightarrow \underset {benzene(A)} {\mathrm{C}_{6} \mathrm{H}_{6}}+\mathrm{ZnO}\)

Acetaldehyde - CH₃-CHO

 

\(\mathrm{Ag}_{2} \mathrm{CrO}_{4(\mathrm{~s})} \rightleftharpoons 2 \mathrm{Ag}_{(\mathrm{aq})}^{+}+\mathrm{CrO}_{4{(\mathrm{aq})}}^{2-}\\ \quad s \quad \quad \quad \quad \quad 2s \quad \quad \quad \quad s\)
\(\left[\mathrm{Ag}^{+}\right]=2 \mathrm{~s}+0.01 \)
\(\simeq 0.01 \)
\((\because 2 s<<0.01) \)
\(\left[\mathrm{CrO}_{4}^{2-}\right]=\mathrm{S} \)
\(\mathrm{AgNO}_{3(\mathrm{~s})} \rightleftharpoons \mathrm{Ag}_{(\mathrm{aq})}^{+}+\mathrm{NO}_{3_{(\mathrm{aq})}}^{-}\\ 0.01M \quad \quad 0.01M \quad \quad 0.01M \quad\)
\(\mathrm{K}_{\mathrm{sp}}=\left[\mathrm{Ag}^{+}\right]^{2}\left[\mathrm{CrO}_{4}^{2-}\right]  \)
\(1 \times 10^{-12}=(0.01)^{2}(\mathrm{~s})  \)
\(\mathrm{S}=\frac{1 \times 10^{-12}}{10^{-4}}=1 \times 10^{-8} \mathrm{M}\)

In acid medium:
In the presence of dilute sulphuric acid, potassium permanganate acts as a very strong oxidising agent. Permanganate ions is converted into Mn²⁺ ion.
MnO₄^- + 8H⁺ + 5e^- ⟶ Mn²⁺ + 4H₂O
The oxidising nature of potassium permanganate (permanganate ion) in acid medium is illustrated in the following examples.
It oxidises ferrous salts to ferric salts.
2MnO₄ + 10Fe²⁺+ 16H⁺ ⟶ 2Mn²⁺ + 10Fe³⁺ + 8H₂O

(i) If value of \(\triangle\)G is fur any reaction then to make such reaction spontaneous it is coupled with another reaction of large negative \(\triangle\)G value, so that the sum of two \(\triangle\)G becomes negative. This is known as coupling of reaction.
(ii) In the metallurgy, thermodynamically infeasible reaction is coupled with a reaction which has more negative G, so that net \(\triangle\)G become negative.

(i) Compound (A) with molecular formula C₃H₆O that undergoes iodoform reaction is CH₃COCH₃ (A) (acetone).
(ii) Two molecules of (A) react with dry HCl to give compound (B).

(iii) Compound (B) reacts with (A) to give compound (C).

Compound	Compound Name	Formula
A	Acetone
B	Mesityl oxide
C	Phorone

(i) Suppose the reactant of a reaction is present in one solvent and the other reactant is present in an another solvent.
(ii) The reaction between them is very slow, if the solvents are immisible.
(iii) As the solvents from separate phases the reactants have to migrate across the boundary to react.
(iv) But migration of reactants across the boundary is not easy. For such situations a third solvent is added which is miscible with both.
(v) So, the phase boundary is eliminated reactants freely mix and react fast.
(vi) But for large scale production of any product, use of a third solvent is not convenient as it may be expensive.
(vii) For such problems phase transfer catalysis provides a simple solution, which avoides the use of solvents.
(viii) It directs the use a phase transfer catalyst (a phase transfer reagent) to facilitate transport of a reactant in one solvent to the other solvent where the second reactant is present.
(ix) As the reactants are now brought together they rapidly react and form the product.

(i) It is generally expected a steady decrease in atomic radius along a period as the nuclear charge increases and the extra electrons are added to the same sub shell.
(ii) But for the 3d transition elements, the expected decrease in atomic radius is observed from Sc to V, thereafter up to Cu the atomic radius nearly remains the same.
(iii) As we move from Sc to Zn in 3d series the extra electrons are added to the 3d orbitals, the added 3d electrons only partially shield the increased nuclear charge and hence the effective nuclear charge increases slightly.
(iv) However, the extra electrons added to the 3d sub shell strongly repel the 4s electrons and these two forces are operated in opposite direction and as they tend to balance each other, it leads to constancy in atomic radii.
(v) At the end of the series, d - orbitals of Zinc contain 10 electrons in which the repulsive interaction between the electrons is more than the effective nuclear charge and hence, the orbitals slightly expand and atomic radius slightly increases.

TYPE	EXAMPLE	SHAPE	DIAGRAM	HYBRIDISATION
AX	ClF	Linear
AX3	ClF3	Bipyramidal (without lone pair it is T-shaped)
AX5	IF5	Octahedral (without lone pair it is square pyramidal)
AX7	IF7	Pentagonal bipyramidal

(i) The defects in ionic solids is by adding impurity ions.
(ii) If the impurity ions are in different valance state from that of host, vacancies are created in the crystal lattice of the host.
(iii) For example, addition of CdCl₂ to silver chloride yields solid solutions where the divalent cation Cd²⁺ occupies the position of Ag⁺.
(iv) This will disturb the electrical neutrality of the crystal.
(v) In order to maintain the same, proportional number of Ag⁺ ions leaves the lattice.
(vi) This produces a cation vacancy in the lattice, such kind of crystal defects are called impurity defects.

The stability of a complex or co-ordination compound refers to the extent up to which it exists in a solution as co-ordination sphere.
(i) Change on the central metal ion: Greater the charge on the central metal ion, greater the stability of complex.
(ii) Nature of the metal ion: Group 3 and 6 and inner transition elements form stable complexes when donor atoms of the ligands are N, O and F. The elements after group 6 of the transition metals form stable complex when the donor atoms of the ligands are the heavier members of N, O and F family.
(iii) Basic nature of the ligands: Greater the basic strength, greater is the stability of the complex.
(iv) Presence of chelate rings: Its presence increases the stability of the complex. it is called chelate effect. It is maximum for the 5 and 6 membered rings.
(v) Effect of multidentate cyclic ligand: If the ligands are IT multidentate and cyclic without any steric effect the stability of the complex get increased.