(i) Issue of shares at Par:
Normally shares are issued at their face value or par value i.e at a price mentioned on the face of share certificate concerned. There are no legal restrictions on issuing shares at par/face value.
(ii) Issue of securities at discount:
When the shares are issued at a price below the face value they are said to be issued at a discount. For example, a share having the face value of Rs 10 is issued at Rs 8. The companies act 2013, prohibits the issue of shares at discount (Section 53), except sweat Equity share.

The recent methods of recruiting by organisations include the following methods:
(i) Outsourcing: There are outsourcing firms that help in the process of recruiting through screening of applications and finding the right person for the job for which job they are paid service charges.
(ii) Poaching: Organisations instead of training and developing their own employees, hire employees of other competitive companies by paying them more both financial and non-financial benefits. It is called raiding.

A complaint may be made in writing under the following circumstances:
i) Loss or damage is caused to the consumer due to unfair trade practice of a trader.
ii) If the article purchased by a consumer is defective.
iii) If the services availed of by a consumer suffer from any deficiency.
iv) When the price paid by a consumer excess of the price displayed on the goods or when the price is in excess of the price fixed under any law in force.
v) Goods, which will be hazardous to life and safety, when used are being offered for sale to the public in contravention of the provisions of any law.

The Indian Corporate Governance framework requires listed companies,
(i) To have independent directors on the board; Atleast one-third of the directors have to be independent directors.
(ii) To have atleast one independent woman director.
(iii) To disclose all deals and payments to related parties.
(iv) To disclose details of managerial compensation
(v) CEO and CFO to sign stating that the governance norms have been complied with in the financial statements.

(i) To exchange goods and services
(ii) To adjust demand and supply by price mechanism.
(iii) To improve the quality of life of the society
(iv) To introduce new modes of life
(v) To develop product by enhancing market segment.

(i) Where a group of people interview the candidate, it is called panel interview.
(ii) Usually panel comprises chairperson, subject expert, psychological experts, representatives of minorities / under privileged groups, nominees of higher bodies and so on.
(iii) All panel members ask different types of questions on general areas of specialisation of the candidates.
(iv) Each member awards marks of the candidate. At the end, the marks awarded by all the members are aggregated and the candidates are ranked accordingly.

(i) We need to submit proof of identity and address along with a passport size photograph and the account opening form. Only photocopies ofthe documents are required for submission, and originals are also required for verification.
(ii) The Proof of identity may be, PAN card, voter's ID, passport, driver's license, bank attestation, IT returns, electricity bill, telephone bill, ID cards with applicant's photo issued by the central or state government and its departments, etc.
(iii) The Proof of address may be Ration card, passport, Voter's ID card, bank passbook or bank statement, verified copies of electricity bills, residence telephone bills, lease and license agreement or agreement for sale, etc.

Bull :
(a) A Bull or Tejiwala is an operator who expects a rise in prices of securities in the future.
(b) In anticipation of price rise he makes purchases of shares at present and other securities with the intention to sell at higher prices in future.
(c) He is called bull because just like a bull tends to throw his victim up in the air, the bull stimulates the price to rise. He is an optimistic speculator.
Bear :
(a) A Bear or Mandiwala speculator expects prices to fall in future and sells securities at present with a view to purchase them at lower prices in future.
(b) A bear does not have securities at present but sells them at higher prices in anticipation that he will supply them by purchasing at lower prices in future. A bear is a pessimistic speculator.

(i) Savings and Capital Formation:
(a) In capital market, various types of securities help to mobilize savings from various sectors of population (Individuals, Corporate, Government, etc.).
(b) The twin features of reasonable return and liquidity in stock exchange are definite incentives to the people to invest in securities.
(c) This accelerates the capital formation in the country.
(ii) Ready and Continuous Market:
(a) The stock exchange provides a central convenient place where buyers and sellers can easily purchase and sell securities.
(b) Easy marketability makes investment in securities more liquid as compared to other assets.

According to Koontz and Weihrich, "Management is the process of designing and maintaining of an environment in which individuals working together in groups efficiently accomplish selected aims.

A Company secretary is a high-level officer. He enjoys certain rights and power as per the contract made with the company, which are as follows:
(i) Supervision and Control: As a head of the office, a company secretary has the rights to supervise, direct and control all office activities of subordinate offices.
(ii) Singing authority: Being a principal officer, a company secretary can sign. contracts, proceedings of the company meeting, files and documents on behalf of the company.
(iii) Exercising power: He has the right to exercise powers as granted by a board of directors.
(iv) Issuing testimonial: A company secretary can issue testimonials to employees on behalf of the company.
(v) Claiming salary and damages: As per the contract, he has the right to claim his salary and other allowances. He can also take legal action against the company if there is any breach of contract.
(vi) Preferential creditor: During winding up of a company, the company secretary can claim his legal dues on a preferential basis.
(vii) Attending a meeting: He has the right to be physically present in the meetings of the shareholders and board of directors.

1. It increases chances new talents and skills.
2. It would create a healthy competition among the employees.
3. The new employees wotild be existing employee of some other organisation. It will be in ideas of other industries.
4. It would avoid the problem between the existing employees.
5. This increased chance provides better availability of skilled and qualified employee.
6. One common things they look for is a well experienced and qualified candidate.
7. The recruitment is done in a fair manner equally for all candidates where internal politics are avoided

Opportunities for Women Entrepreneurs
(i) Opportunities Based on Business: Women entrepreneurs are bestowed with numerous business opportunities depending upon their area, choice of industry, the capacity to invest, technical and non-technical skills, etc.
(ii) Financial Opportunities: All Banks in India provide financial support to the women Entrepreneur, in the form of micro small loans to buy Raw Materials and Equipment.
(iii) Non-Financial support: Women entrepreneurs are provided with the following non-financial support in the form of:
i. Financial counseling and training
ii. Business advisory service
iii. Handling legal barriers
iv. Establishing Commercial linkages
v. Client research
(iv) Opportunities Created by Associations: There are various associations like Self Help Groups (SHG), Federation of Indian Women Entrepreneurs (FIWE), Women's India Trust (WIT), Small Industries Development Organisation (SIDO), Self Employed Women's Association (SEWA), Tamilnadu Corporation for Development of Women Ltd. (TNCDW), Women Entrepreneurs Promotion Association (WEPA), Women Entrepreneurs Association of Tamil Nadu (WEAT) are aggressively promoting women entrepreneurship in India.
(v) Opportunities Created by Government: Government both Union and Central have put in a number of schemes exclusively for the promotion of women entrepreneurship namely:
i. Mahila Coir Yojana
ii. Mahila E-haat
iii. Magalir Udavi Scheme
iv. Prime Minister's RozgarYojana (PMRY)

(i) Stock Holding Corporation of India Limited (SHCIL):
(a) The Stock Holding Corporation of India Ltd (SHCIL) is committed to speed up trading, clearance and settlement services for securities and monetary instruments.
(b) SHCIL is the first depository participant registered with SEBI and acts as an agent of the National Securities Depository.
(ii) National Clearance and Depository system (NCDS):
(a) This system was created chiefly to help overcome the problem of settlement and clearance of transactions consequent to enormous workload on the clearing agencies and share transfer agencies.
(b) The problems mainly arose out of systematic risk like counter party risk, credit risk, bad deliveries, long delayed delivery, counterfeit scrips, and forged scrips.
(iii) Securities Trading Corporation of India (STCI):
(a) The main objective of establishing the Corporation was to foster the development of an active secondary market for Government securities and bonds issued by public sector undertakings.
(b) It had an authorized and paid-up capital of Rs. 500 crores of which, RBI contributed 50.18 percent.
(iv) National Securities Depository Limited (NSDL):
(a) National Securities Depository Ltd (NSDL) was inaugurated as the first depository in India on November 8, 1996.
(b) Trading in dematerialized securities on the National Stock Exchange (NSE) commenced in December 26,1996.

The process of MBO is explained below:
(i) Defining Organisational Objectives: Initially, organisational objectives are framed by the top level employees of an organisation. The definition of organisational objectives states why the business is started and exists.
(ii) Goals of Each Section : Objectives for each section, department or division are framed on the basis of overall objectives of the organisation. Goals or objectives are expressed in a meaningful manner.
(iii) Fixing Key Result Areas: Key result areas are fixed on the basis of organisational objectives premises. Key Result Areas (KRA) are arranged on a priority basis. KRA indicates the strength of an organisation.
(iv) Setting Subordinate Objectives or Targets : The objectives of each subordinate or individual are fixed. It is preferable to fix the objectives at lower level in quantitative units. There should be a free and frank discussion between the superior and his subordinates.
(v) Matching Resources with Objective : The objectives are framed on the basis of availability of resources. If certain resources (technical personnel or scarce raw material) are not adequately available, the objectives of an organisation are changes accordingly.
(vi) Periodical Review Meetings: The superior and, subordinates should hold meetings periodically in which they discuss the progress in the accomplishment of objectives.
(vii) Appraisal of Activities: At the end of the fixed period for achieving the objectives, there should be a discussion between the superior and subordinates.

The purpose of training can be explained as follows:
(i) Improved Quality of Work
Training helps to focus on specific area and develop employee skills.
It enables employee to increase the guality ofwork.
(ii) Enhance Employee Growth
Employees who undergo training becomes good at their job.
Imparting new skills helps in performance enhancement of the employees.
(iii) Motivating Employees
An employee needs continuous development to move along the career path as per the career planning.
Training motivates and instils organizational commitment.
(iv) Reduced Supervision
Trained employees need minimum supervision as they are educated about various aspect of job in detail at the training programme.
(v) Better Adaptability
Employees are able to adapt themselves to new technologies and new methods of work.which constantly undergoes changes

Advantage of E-Marketing :
(i) Any Time market: E - Marketing provides 24 hours and 7 days "24/7" service to its users. So consumer can shop or order the product anytime from anywhere.
(ii) Direct contact of end consumer by the manufacturers cuts down the substantially intermediation cost. Thus products bought through e-marketing become cheaper.
(iii) Customer can buy whatever they want/ need just by browsing the various sites.
Disadvantages of E-Marketing :
(i) E-Marketing a strong Online advertising campaign need for which company have to spend large amount for website design, software, hardware, maintenance of business site, Online distribution costs.
(ii) It is not suitable for small size business and also deters customers from buying who lives on long distances.
(iii) While the number of customers is continuously growing, companies hardly update the information on website.
(iv) Many buyers are suspicious about the security of the Internet. As a result, many visitors of business web sites do not like to use their credit card to make a purchase. So, there is a fear of their cards being misused by fraudulent practitioners.

The various steps involved in starting a venture have been highlighted.
(i) Selection of the product:
An entrepreneur may select a product according to his aspiration, capacity, and motivation after a thorough scrunity of the micro and macro environment of business.
(ii) Selection of form ownership: 
Entrepreneur has to choose the form of organization suitable and appropriate for his venture namely family ownership, partnership, and private limited company.
(iii) Selection of Site:
(i) Entrepreneur has to choose suitable plot for accommodating his venture.
(ii) Entrepreneur may buy private land and develop it for industrial use.While choosing the site, consider Nearness to native place, Incentives provided by theGovernment, Nearness to market, Infrastructure Facilities.
For example Nearness to native place, Incentives provided by the Government, Near to market.
(iv) Designing Capital Structure:
Entrepreneur has to determine the souce of fhnance for funding the venture, He/she may mobiline funds from his own savings, lons from friends and relatives, term loans from banks and financial institutions.
(v) Acquisition of Manufacturing know-how: 
Entrepreneur can acquire manufacturing know-how from Government research laboratories, research and development divisions of industries, and individual consultants.
(vi) Preparation of project report:
Project reports nreds to be prepared accoring to the form t prescribed in the loan application from of term lending instítutions,An entrepreneur can get the report prepared either by technical consultancy oryanisation or by auditors or by consultants or by developrneht agencies.

Certain presumptions as briefly mentioned below:
(i) Every negotiable instrument is presumed to have been drawn, accepted, etc. for consideration.
(ii) A negotiable instrument is presumed to have been accepted.
(iii) Every negotiable instrument bearing, a date is presumed to have been made or drawn on such a date.
(iv) It is presumed to have been accepted within a reasonable time after the date and before its maturity.
(v) The transfer of a negotiable instrument is presumed to have been made before maturity.
(vi) The endorsements appearing upon a negotiable instrument are presumed to have been made in the order to which they appear thereon.
When a negotiable instrument has been lost, it is presumed to have been duly stamped.
(vi) The holder of a negotiable instrument is presumed to be a holder in due course.

Ability Test :
(i) A test designed to measure an individuals cognitive function in a specific area such as variety of skills, mental aptitude, problem solving, knowledge of particular filed, reasoning ability, intelligence, etc.
(ii) Thistest is used to find the suitability of a candidate for a given job role. It comprises the following:
(1) Aptitude test :
Aptitude test is a test to measure suitability of the candidates for the post/ role. It actually measures skills sets of the candidates. It helps in predicting the ability and future performance of the candidate. Aptitude test can be measured by the following ways:
* Numerical Reasoning test
* Verbal Reasoning test
* Inductive Reasoning test
* Mechanical Reasoning test
* DiagrammaticReasoning test
* Spatial Reasoning test
* Situational judgment test
* Mental Arithmetic test
* Vocabulary test
* Number sequence test
(2) Achicvement Test :
This test measures a candidate's capacity to achieve in a particular field. In other words this test measures a candidate's level of skill in certain areas, accomplishment and knowledge in a particular subject. The regular examination conducted in educational institution represents achivement test.It is also called proficiency test.
(3)Intelligence Test :
Intelligence tests are one of the psychological tests, that is designed to measure a variety of mental ability, individual capacity of a candidate. The main aim of these tests is to obtain an idea of the person's intellectual potential.
(4) Judgement Test :
This test is conducted to test the presence of mind and reasoning capacity ofthe candidates.
B.Personality Test :
Personality test refers to the test conducted to find out the non intellectual traits of a candidate namely temperamcnt, emotional response, capability, and stability. There is no right or wrong in the test. It comprises the following tests.
(i) Interest Test
(ii) Personality Inventory test
(iii) Projective test / Thematic appreciation test
(iv) Attitude test.

The operating functions of HRM are as follows:
(i) Procurement:
Acquisition deals with job analysis, human resource planning, recruitment, selection, placement, transfer and promotion.
(ii) Development:
Development includes performance appraisal, training, executive development, career planning and development, organisational development.
(iii) Compensation :
It deals with job evaluation, wage and salary administration, incentives, bonus, fringe benefits and social security schemes.
(iv) Retention:
This is made possible through health and safety, welfare, social security, job satisfaction and quality of work life.
(v) Integration:
It is concerned with those activities that aim to bring about reconciliation between personal interest and organisational interest.
(vi) Maintenance:
This encourages employees to work with job satisfaction, reducing labour turnover, accounting for human resource and carrying out audit and research.

(i) The lack of paperwork enables quicker transactions and higher efficiency in trading
(ii) The risks pertaining to physical certificates like loss, theft, forgery and damage are eliminated completely with a DEMAT account.
(iii) Trading has become more convenient as one can trade through computers at any location, without the need of visiting a broker.
(iv) Certain banks also permit holding of both equity and debt securities in a single account.
(v) Banks also provide dedicated and trained customer care officers to assist through all the procedures.
(vi) One can also choose to take a loan against securities which are held in a DEMAT account by offering it as a collateral to the lender.

 
S.No Features Money Market Capital Market 1. Duration of
funds It is a market for short-term loanable funds for a period of not exceeding one year. It is a market for long-term funds
exceeding period of one year. 2. Deals with
Instruments It deals with instruments like commercial
bills (bills of exchange, treasury bill, commercial papers, etc.) It deals with instruments like shares debentures,government bonds, etc. 3 Money Value Each single money market instrument is of large amount.Each certificate of deposits or commercial paper is for minimum of  ₹ 5 lakhs Each single capital market instrument is of small amount. Each share value is ₹10. Each debenture value is ₹100. 4 Role of major
institutions The central bank and commercial banks are the major institutions in the money market Development banks and Insurance
companies play a dominant role in the
capital market. 5 Risk Low credit and market risk High credit and market risk. 6 Liquidity High liquidity in Money Market Low liquidity in Capital Market

Functions of management can be classified into two categories.
A. Main functions; and
B. Subsidiary functions.
A. Main functions:
(i) Planning:
(a) Planning is the primary function of management.
(b) Nothing can be performed without planning.
(c) E.g. Writing a book starts with planning.
(ii) Organising:
(a) Organising is the process of establishing harmonious relationship among the members of an organisation.
(b) Organsing function work is assigned to employees who are given authority to carry out the work assigned and made accountable for it.
(iii) Staffing:
(a) Staffing function comprises the activities of selection and placement of competent personnel.
(b) Staffing refers to placement of right persons in the right jobs.
(iv) Directing:
(a) Directing denotes motivating, leading, guiding and communicating with subordinates.
(b) Employees are kept informed of all necessary matters by circulars, instructions man uals, newsletters, notice-boards, meeting, participative mechanism, etc.
B. Subsidiary functions:
(i) Innovation:
(a) Innovation refers to the preparation of personnel and organisation to face the changes made in the business world.
(b) Innovation includes developing new material, new products, new techniques in production, new package, new design of a product and cost reduction.
(ii) Representation:
(a) A manager has to act as representative of a company.
(b) Manager has dealings with customers, suppliers, government officials, banks, financial institutions, trade unions, etc.
(c) It is the duty of every manager to have good relation with others.
(iii) Decision-making:
(a) Everyemployee of an organisation has to take a number of decisions everyday.
(b) Decision - making helps in the smooth functioning of an organisation.
(iv) Communication:
(a) Communication is the transmission of human thoughts, views or opinions from one person to another person.
(v) Workers are informed about what should be done, where it is to be done, how it is to be done and when it is to be done.

The person one who takes an active interest in the well being of a company and one of the Members of Board of Directors is called as Director of a company. A Director is a person from a Board of Director who leads or supervises the functioning of a company.

Entrepreneur requires two types of finance namely long term and short term. While long-term requirements are needed for acquiring fixed assets, short-term requirement are meant for meeting working capital needs. Entrepreneur has to bring in promoters contribution (seed capital) prescribed by financing agencies.

364 days Treasury bills do not carry any fixed rate of discount. The discount rate on these bills are quoted in auction by the participants and accepted by the authorities. Such a rate is called cut -off rate.

MBO is a management system in which each member of the organisation effectively participates and involves himself. This system gives full scope to the individual strength and responsibility. MBO harmonises the goal of an individual with the organisation's goal.

Esprit de corps means "union is strength". In an organisation, employees should be harmony and unit. It improves the employee morale.

One of the way by which consumers are being exploited is 'Artificial Scarcity'. In milk books and in cinema house use find 'No Stock' and 'House full' board outside. But milk and cinema tickets are available at a higher price in the black market.

(i) Placement is a process of assigning a specific job to each and every candidate selected.
(ii) Placement signifies placing the rights person on the right job in a good manner.
(iii) The term placement includes initial assignment of new employees and promotion, transfer or demotion of precent employees.

Universally relevant :
Human Resource Management has universal relevance.
Goal Oriented :
The accomplishment of organizational goals is made possible through best utilization of human resource is an organization.

According to Husband and Dockerary, "Stock exchanges are privately organized markets which are used to facilitate trading in securities."

Debt Market is the financial market for trading in Debt Instrument (i.e. Government Bonds or Securities, Corporate Debentures or Bonds).