Analysis of algorithms and performance evaluation can be divided into two different phases:
(i) A Priori estimates: This is a theoretical performance analysis of an algorithm. Efficiency of an algorithm is measured by assuming the external factors.
(ii) A Posterori testing: This is called performance measurement. In this analysis, actual statistics like running time and required for the algorithm executions are collected.

An algorithm that yields expected output for a valid input is called an algorithmic solution

A searching algorithm is the step-by step procedure used to locate specific data among a collection of data. There are two types of searching are.
(i) Linear Search
(ii) Binary Search

Pseudo code is an informal way of Programming language syntax.

(i) A tuple is a comma-separated sequence of values surrounded with parentheses. Tuple is similar to a list.
(ii) The difference between the two is that you cannot change the elements of a tuple once it is assigned whereas in a list, elements can be changed
(iii) Example : colour = ('red', 'blue, 'Green')

(i) Abstract Data type (ADT) is a type (or class) for objects whose behavior is defined by a set of value and a set of operations. 
(ii) The definition of ADT only mentions what operations are to be performed but not how these operations will be implemented.

Execution Steps:
//save above file as welcome.cpp
#Now select File -> New in Notepad and type the Python program
#save the file as fun.py
#Program that compiles and executes a .cpp file
#Python fun.py- iC: |pyprg| welcome - file.cpp
Program:
import sys, os, getopt
def main (argv):
cpp_file="
exe_file="
opts, args = getopt.getopt(argv, "i:", ['ifile='])
for o a in opts
if o in ("-i, "--ifile"):
cpp_file=a+ .'cpp'
exe_file = a+ 'exe'
run (cpp_file, exe_file)
def run (cpp_file, exe_file):
print("Compiling" + Cpp_file)
os.system ('g++' + cpp_file+'_o'+exe_file)
print("Running" + exe_file)
print("---------------")
print
Os.system(exe_file)
print
if_name_=='_main_':
main (sys.argv [1:])
Output:
welcome.

1. CSV file - data with default delimiter comma(,)
2. CSV file - data with space at the beginning.
3. CSV file - data with quotes
4. CSV file - data with custom Delimiters
1. CSV file - data with default delimiter comma(,):
The following program read a file called "Sample1.csv" with default delimiter comma (,) and print row by row.
Program:
#importing csv
import csv
#opening the csv file which is in different location with read mode
with opent('c.\\pyprg\\sample1.csv', 'r') as F:
#other way to open the file is f= ('C:\\pyprg\\ sample1.csv', 'r')
reader = csv.reader(F)
# printing each line of the Data row by row
print(row)
F.close()
Output:
['SNO', 'NAME', 'CITY']
['12101', 'RAM', 'CHENNAI']
['12102', 'LAVANYA', 'TIRUCHY']
['12103', 'LAKSHMAN', 'MADURAI']
2. CSV files - data with spaces at the beginning:
Consider the following file "Sample2.csv containing the following data when opened through notepad.

Program:
import csv
csv.register_dialect ['my Dialect', delimiters=', 'Skipinitialspace= True).
F = open ('c:\\Pyprgl\sample2.csv', 'r')
reader = CSV.reader (F, dialect = 'myDialect')
for row in reader:
print (row)
F.close()
Output:
['Topic 1', 'Topic 2', 'Topic 3']
['One', 'two', 'three']
['Example 1', 'Example 2', 'Example 3']
We can see in "Sample 2.csv" there are spaces after the delimiter due to which the output is also displayed with spaces.
These whitespaces can be removed, by registering new dialects using csv. register _dialect( ) class of csv module. A dialect describes the format of the csv file that is to be read. In dialects the Parameter "skipinitialspace" is used for removing whitespaces after the delimiter.
3. CSV File - Data with Quotes:
We can read the csv files with quotes, by registering new dialects using csv. register_dialect( ) class of csv module.
SNO,                   Quotes
1,  "The Secret to getting ahead is getting started".
2, "Excellence is a continuous process and not an accident."
3,  "Work hard dream big never give up and believe Yourself"
4, "Failure is the opportunity to begin again more intelligently".
5, "The successful warrior is the average man, with laser-like focus."
Program:
import cSv
csv.register_ dialect ('MyDialect', delimiter =, 'quoting = csv.QUOTE_ALL, skipinitialspace = True)
f=open ('c:\\Pyprg\\ quotes.csv', 'r')
reader = csv.reader (f, dialect = 'myDialect')
for row in reader:
print (row)
Output:
['SNO, 'Quotes']
['1', 'The secret to getting ahead is getting started'.]
['2', 'Excellence is a continuous process and not an accident'.]
['3', 'Work hard dream big never give up and believe yourself'.]
['4', 'Failure is the opportunity to begin again more intelligently':]
['5', 'The successful warrior is the average man with laser- like focus':]
4. CSV files with custom Delimiters:
We can read csv file having custom the delimiter by registering a new dialect with the help of csv.register_dialect( ).
In the following file called "sample4.csv", each column is separated with |(Pipe Symbol)

Program:
import csv
Csv. register_dialect('myDialect', delimiter= '|')
with open (c:\\pyprg\sample 4.csv', 'r') as f:
reader = csv.reader (f, dialect = "my dialect")
for row is reader:
print (row)
f.close()
Output:
['Roll no', 'Name', 'City]
['12101', 'Arun', 'Chennai']
['12102', 'Meena', 'Kovai']
['12103', 'Ram', 'Nellai']

Characteristics of Database Management System

Types of relationships:
(i) One-to-One Relationship
(ii) One-to-Many Relationship
(iii) Many-to-One Relationship
(iv) Many-to-Many Relationship
(i) One-to-One Relationship: 
In One-to-One Relationship, one entity is related with : only one other entity. One row in a table is linked with only one row in another table and vice versa.
For example: A student can have only one exam number

(ii) One-to-Many Relationship.
In One-to- Many relationship, one entity is related to many other entities. One row in a table A is linked to many rows in a table B, but one row in a table B is linked to only one row in table A.
For example: One Department has many staff members.

(iii) Many-to-One Relationship:
In Manyto- One Relationship, many entities can be related with only one in the other entity.
For example:
A number of staff members working in one Department.
Multiple rows in staff members table is related with only one row in Department table.

(iv) Many-to-Many Relationship:
A manyto- many relationship occurs when multiple records in a table are associated with multiple records in another table.
(i) Example 1: 
Customers and Product
Customers can purchase various products and Products can be purchased by many customers
(ii) Example 2:
Students and Courses
A student can register for many Courses and a Course may include many students
(iii) Example 3:
Books and Student.
Many Books in a Library are issued to many students.

(i) When a function calls itself is known as recursion.
(ii) Recursion works like loop but sometimes it makes more sense to use recursion than loop.
(iii) You can convert any loop to recursion. A recursive function calls itself.
(iv) Imagine a process would iterate indefinitely if not stopped by some condition is known as infinite iteration.
(v) The condition that is applied in any recursive function is known as base condition.
(vi) A base condition is must in every recursive function otherwise it will continue to execute like an infinite loop.
Overview of how recursive function works: 
(i) Recursive function is called by some external code.
(ii) If the base condition is met then the program gives meaningful output and exits.
(iii) Otherwise, function does some required processing and then calls itself to continue recursion.
Here is an exanmple of recursive function used to calculate factorial.
Example:
def fact(n):
if n == 0:
             return 1
else:
             return n * fact (n-1)
print (fact (0))
print (fact (5))
Output:
120

Program:
def lcm(x, y):
if x>y:
       greater = x
else:
       greater = y
while (True):
        if ((greater % x == 0) and (greater % y ==0))
        lcm = greater
        break
        greater + = 1
        return lcm
a = int (input ("Enter the first number:"))
b = int (input ("Enter the second number: "))
print ("The L.C.M of", a, "and", b, "is", lcm (a, b))
                      [OR]
Method II: (without using functions)
a = int (input ("Enter the first number:"))
b = int (input ("Enter the second number:"))
if a>b:
       mini a
else:
       min 1 = b
       while (1):
if (min 1% a 0 and mini 1% b=0):
print ("LCM is:", mini)
break
mini = min 1+1
Output:
Enter the first number: 15
Enter the second number: 20
LCM is: 60

(i) Dynamic programming is an algorithmic design method that can be used when the solution to a problem can be viewed as the result of a sequence of decisions.
(ii) Dynamic programming approach is similar to divide and conquer. The given problem is divided into smaller and yet smaller possible sub-problems.
(iii) Dynamic programming is used whenever problems can be divided into similar subproblems. so that their results can be reused to complete the process.
(iv) Dynamic programming approaches are used to find the solution in optimized way. For every inner subproblem, dynamic algorithm will try to check the results of the previously solved sub-problems.
(v) The solutions of overlapped sub-problems are combined in order to get a better solution.
Steps to doDynamic programming :
(i) The given problem will be divided into smaller overlapping sub-problems.
(ii) An optimum solution for the given problem can be achieved by using result of smaller sub-problem.
(iii) Dynamic algorithms uses Memoization
Fibonacci Series - An example :
(i) Fibonacci series generates the subsequent number by adding two previous numbers. Fibonacci series starts from two numbers -Fib 0 & Fib 1. The initial values of Fib 0 & Fib l can be taken as 0 and 1.
(ii) Fibonacci series satisfies the following conditions:
Fibn = Fib_a-1 + Fib_a-2
(iii) Hence, a Fibonacci series for the n value 8 can look like this
Fib₈ = 0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13
Fibonaeci Iterative Algorithm with Dynamic programning approach : The following example shows a simple Dynamic programning approach for the generation ot Fibonacci series.
Initialize f0 = 0, f1 = 1.
Step- 1: Print the initial values of Fibonacci f0 and f1 
Step- 2: Calculate Fibonacci fib \(\leftarrow \) f0+ f1 
Step- 3: Assign f0 \(\leftarrow \) f1, f1 \(\leftarrow \) fib
Step- 4: Print the next consecutive value of Fibonacci fib
Step- 5: Go to step-2 and repeat until the specified number of terms generated
Example:
if we generate Fibonacci series up to 10 digits, the algorithm will generate the series as shown below:
The Fibonacci series is:
0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55.

(i) Linear search also called sequential search is a sequential method for finding a particular value in a list.
(ii) This method checks the search element with each element in sequence until the desired element is found or the list is exhausted. In this searching algorithm, list need not be ordered.
procedure :
1. Traverse the array using for loop
2. In every iteration, compare the target search key value with the current value of the list.
(i) If the values do not match, move on to the next array element.
(ii) If the values match, display the current index and value of the array.
3. If no match is found, display the search element not found.
(iii) To search the number 25 in the array given below, a linear search will go step by step in a sequential order starting from the first element in the given array if the search element is found that index is returned otherwise the search is continued till the last index of the array. In this example number 25 is found at index number 3.

Example 1:
Input: values[] = {5, 34, 65, 12, 77, 35)
target = 77
Output: 4
Example 2:
Input: values[] = [101, 392, 1, 54, 32, 22, 90, 93) target = 200
Output: -1 (not found)

Python breaks each logical line into a sequence of elementary lexical components known as Tokens. The normal token types are
(i) Identifiers,
(ii) Keywords,
(iii) Operators,
(iv) Delimiters and
(v) Literals.
(i) Identifiers:
1. An Identifier is a name used to identify a variable, function, class, module or object.
2. An identifier must start with an alphabet (A..Z or a..z) or underscore (-).
3. Identifiers may contain digits (0 .. 9).
4. Python identifiers are case sensitive i.e. uppercase and lowercase letters are distinct.
5. Identifiers must not be a python keyword.
6. Python does not allow punctuation character such as %,$, @ etc., within identifiers.
Example of valid identifiers.
Sum, total_marks, regno, num1.
Example of invalid identifiers
12 Name, name $, total-mark, continue.
Keywords:
Keywords are special words used by Python interpreter to recognize the structure of program. As these words have specific meaning for interpreter, they cannot be used for any other purpose.

Operators:
In computer programming languages operators are special symbols which represent computations, conditional matching etc. The value of an operator used is called operands. Operators are categorized as Arithmetic, Relational, Logical, Assignment etc. Value and variables when used with operator are known as operands.
i) Arithmetic operators
An arithmetic operator is a mathematical operator that takes two operands and performs a calculation on them. They are used for simple arithmetic. Most computer languages contain a set of such operators that can be used within equations to perform different types of sequential calculations.
Python supports the following Arithmetic operators.

ii) Relational or Comparative Operators
A Relational operator is also called as comparative operator which checks the relationship between two operands. If the relation is true, it returns True; otherwise it returns False.
Python supports following relational operators.

ii) Logical Operators
In Python, Logical operators are used to perform logical operations on the given relational expressions. There are three logical operators they are and, or and not.

iv) Assignment Operators
In Python, =is a simple assignment operator to assign values to variables Let a=5 and b=10 assigns the value.5 to a and 10 to b these two assignment statement can also be given as a,b=5,10 that assigns the value 5 and 10 on the right to the variables a and b respectively.
There are various compound operators in python Like +=,-=,*=,/=,%=,**= and // = are also available.

v) Conditional Operator
Ternary operator is also known as Conditional operator that evaluate something based on a condition being true or false. It simply allows testing a condition in a single line replacing the multiline if-else making the code compact. The syntax conditional operator is
Variable Name = [on_true] if [Test expression] else [on_false]
Example:
min = 50 if 49<50 else 70 # min = 50
min = 50 if 49>50 else 70 # min = 70
Delimiters:
Python uses the symbols and symbol Combinations as delimiters in expressions, lists, dictionaries and strings following are the delimiters.

Literals
Literal is a raw data given in a variable or constant. In python, there are various types of literals.
1) Numeric
2) String
3) Boolean
1) Numeric Literals
Numeric literals consists of digits and are immutable (unchangeable). Numeric literals can belong to 3 different numerical types Integer, float and complex.
2) String literals
In python a string literal is a sequence of characters surrounded by quotes. Python supports single, double and triple quotes for a string. A character literal is a single character surrounded by single or double quotes. The value with triple- quote "' "' is used to give multi-line string literal.
3) Boolean literals
A Boolean literal can have any of the two values: True or False.
4) Escape sequences
In python strings, the backslash "\" is a special character, also called the "escape" character. It is used in representing certain white space character: "\t" is a tab, "\n" is a newline, and "\r is a carriage return. For Example to print the message "It's raining"
The python command is
>> print ("It \'s raining")
It's raining
Python supports the following escape sequence characters.

(i) The structure construct (In OOP languages it's called class construct) is used to represent multi-part objects where each part is named (given a name). Consider the following pseudo code:
Class Person:
creation()
first Name:=""
last Name:=""
id :=""
email :=""
The new data type Person is pictorially represented as

In the case of something more complex, like a person, we have a multí-item object where each item is a named thing: the first name, the last name, the id, and the email. One could use a list to represent a person:
Person = ['padmashri', 'Baskar', '994-222-1234', 'compsci@gmail.com']

(ii) The class (structure) construct defines the from for multi-part objects that represent a person.
(iii) Person is referred to as a class or a type, while pl is referred to as an object or an instance.
(iv) Here class Person as a Cookie cutter, and pl as a particular cookie, Using the cookie cutter you can make many cookies, Same way using class created many objects of that type. 
(v) A class defines a data abstraction by grouping related data items. A class is not just data, it has functions defined within it, We say such  functions are subordinate to the class because their job is to do thngs with the data of the class.

The SQL provides a predetermined set of commands to work on databases.

Data control language: A Data Control Language (DCL) is a programming language used to control the access of data stored in a database. It is used for controlling privileges in the database (Authorization). The privileges are required for performing all the database operations such as creating sequences, views of tables etc.
SQL commands which come under Data Control Language are:

(i) Database Administrators(DBA)
(ii) Application or software developers
(iii) End User
(iv) Database designers

(i) The Relational Database model was first proposed by E.P. Codd in 1970. It is the most widespread data model used for database applications around the world.
(ii) The basic structure of data in relational model is tables (relations). All the information's related to a particular type is stored in rows of that table.
(iii) Hence tables are also known as relations in a relational model. A relation key is an attribute which uniquely identifies a particular tuple (row in a relation (tabler).

# Python code to demonstrate table creation and insertions with SQL
# importing module
import sqlite3
# connecting to the database
connection = sqlite3.connect ("Academy.db")
# cursor
cursor = connection.cursor ( )

(i) Creating A New Normal CSV File
(ii) Modifying An Existing File
(iii) Writing on a CSV File with Quotes
(iv) Writing on a CSV File with Custom Delimiters
(v) Writing on a CSV File with Lineterminator
(vi) Writing on a CSV File with Quotechars
(vii) Writing CSV File Into A Dictionary
(viii) Getting Data At Runtime And Writing In a File

An ADT for rational numbers:
- - constructor
- - constructs a rational number with numerator n, denominator d
rational(n, d)
- - selector
number(x) \(\rightarrow \) returns the numerator of rational number x
denom(y) \(\rightarrow \) returns the denominator of rational number y

(i) Data abstraction is supported by defining an abstract data type (ADT) which is a collection of constructors and selectors.
(ii) Constructors create an object, bundling together different pieces of information, while selectors extract individual pieces of information from the object.