When the inflation is very moderate, it acts as an incentive to traders and producers. The profit due to rising prices encourages and induces business class to increase their investments in production, leading to generation of employment and income.
(i) However, hyper-inflation results in a serious depreciation of the value of money and it discourages savings.
(ii) When the value of money undergoes considerable depreciation, this may even drain out the foreign capital.
(iii) With reduced capital accumulation, the investment will suffer a serious set-back which may have an adverse effect on the volume of production.

(i) Basis of the Credit System: Money is the basis of the Credit System. Business transactions are either in cash or on credit.
(ii) Money facilitates distribution of National Income: The task of distribution of national income was exceedingly complex under the barter system.
(iii) Money helps to Equalize Marginal Utilities and Marginal Productivities: Consumer can obtain maximum utility only if he incurs expenditure on various commodities in such a manner as to equalize marginal utilities accruing from them.
(iv) Money Increases Productivity of Capital: Money is the most liquid form of capital. In other words, capital in the form of money can be put to any use.

(i) Money as a medium of exchange: This is considered as the basic function of money. Money has the quality of general acceptability, and all exchanges take place in terms of money.
(ii) Money as a measure of value: The second important function of money is that it measures the value of goods and services.

(i) John Maynard Keynes was one of the most influential economists of the 20th century.
(ii) He was born in Cambridge in1883. In addition to his work as an economist he held position as civil servant a director of the Bank of England, and leader of British delegation of negotiators at the Bretton Woods conference at points in his career.
(iii)  Economic theory based on his idea is known as Keynesian economics, and remain highly influential today, particularly in the field of macroeconomics.

1. The enterprises are classified into various industrial groups.
2. Factor incomes are grouped under labour income, capital income and mixed income.
i) Labour income - Wages and salaries, fringe benefits, employer’s contribution to social security.
ii) Capital income – Profit, interest, dividend and royalty
iii) Mixed income – Farming, sole proprietorship and other professions.
3. National income is calculated as domestic factor income plus net factor incomes from abroad.

Short - Run Factors
(i) Demand for the product: If the market for a particular good is expected to grow and its costs are likely to fall, the rate of return from investment will be high. If entrepreneurs expect a fall in demand for goods and a rise in cost, the investment will decline.
(ii) Liquid assets:
If the entrepreneurs are holding large volume of working capital, they can take advantage of the investment opportunities that come in their way. The MEC will be high.
(iii) Sudden changes in income:
The MEC is also influenced by sudden changes in income of the entrepreneurs. If the business community gets windfall profits, or tax concession the MEC will be high and hence investment in the country will go up. On the other hand, MEC falls with the decrease in income.

Duesenberry has made two observations regarding the factors affecting consumption.
a) The consumption expenditure depends not only on his current income but also past income and standard of living. As the individuals are accustomed to a particular standard of living, they continue to spend the same amount on consumption even though the current income is reduced.
b) Consumption is influenced by demonstration effect. The consumption standards of low income groups are influenced by the consumption standards of high income groups. In other words, the poor people want to imitate the consumption pattern of rich. This results in spending beyond their income level.

Proposition (1):
Income increases by Rs. 60 crores and the increase in consumption is by Rs. 50 crores.
Proposition (2):
The increased income of Rs. 60 crores in each case is divided in some proportion between consumption and saving respectively. (i.e., Rs. 50 crores and Rs. 10 crores).
Proposition (3):
As income increases consumption as well as saving increase. Neither consumption nor saving has fallen.

1. Concentration of Wealth and Income: Capitalism causes concentration of wealth and income in a few hands and thereby increases inequalities of income.
2. Wastage of Resources: Large amount of resources are wasted on competitive advertising and duplication of products.
3. Class Struggle: Capitalism leads to class struggle as it divides the society into capitalists and workers.
4. Business Cycle: Free market system leads to frequent violent economic fluctuations and crises.
5. Production of non essential goods: Even the harmful goods are produced if there is possibility to make profit.

Factors determining exchange rates are,
(i) Differentials in Inflation
(ii) Differential in Interest rates
(iii) Current Account Deficits
(iv) Public Debt
(v) Terms of Trade
(vi) Political and Economic Stability
(vii) Recession
(viii) Speculation

(i) Availability of variety of goods for consumption.
(ii) Generation of more employment opportunities.
(iii) Industrialization of backward nations.
(iv) Improvement in relationship among countries.
(v) Division of Labour and specialisation.
(vi) Expansion in Transport Facilities.

The followings are some of the National Income Identities:
NNP = GNP - Depreciation
NNI = NNP - Indirect taxes
PI = NNI - Retained earnings, corporate taxes and interest on public debt
PDI = PI - Personal taxes
Where,
GNP = Gross National Product
NNP = Net National Product
NNI = Net National Income
PI = Personal Income
PDI = Personal Disposable Income

(i) Per Capita income (or) output per person is an indicator to show the living standards of people in a country.
(ii) If real PCI increases.
(iii) It is considered to be an improvement in the overall living standard of people.
(iv) PCI is arrived at by dividing the GDP by the size of population.
(v) It is also arrived by making some adjustment with GDP
(vi) \(PCI=\frac { GDP }{ Total\ number\ of\ people\ in\ a\ country } \) (or)\(PCI=\frac { National\ Income }{ Total\ Population } \)

(i) Accurate and reliable data are not adequate as farm output in the subsistence sector is not completely informed.
(ii) In animal husbandry there are no authentic production data available.
(iii) Different languages, customs, etc., also create problems in computing estimates.
(iv) People in India are indifferent to the official inquiries. They are in most cases non-cooperative also.
(v) Most of the statistical staff are untrained and inefficient.
(vi) Therefore, national income estimates in our country are not very accurate or adequate.

(i) The paper currency standard reffers to the monetary system in which the paper currency notes issued by the treasury of the Central Bank.
(ii) Paper currency is not convertible into any metal.
(iii) Its value is determined independent of the value of gold or any other commodity.
(iv) It also known as managed currency standard.

M₁ = Currency, Coins and demand deposits.
M₂ = M₁ + Saving deposits with post office savings banks.
M₃ M₂ + Time deposits of all commercial and cooperative banks.
M₄ = M₃ + Total deposits with post offices.
M₁ and M₂ are known as narrow money.
M₃ and M₄ are known as broad money.
The graduations are in decreasing order of liquidity.

Lack of Co-ordination:
The greatest drawback of Mixedism is lack of co-ordination between public sector and private sector.
Inefficiency:
Most of the public sector enterprises remain inefficient due to lethargic bureaucracy, red tapism and lack of motivation.
Fear of Nationalization:
In mixed economy, the fear of nationalization discourages the private entrepreneurs in their business operations.

Functioning of an Economy based on Activities

i) Class Struggle:
Capitalism leads to class struggle as it divides the society into capitalists and workers.
ii) Business Cycle:
Free Market System leads to frequent violent economic fluctuations and crisis.