1) The Defence of India Regulations Act, it was an emergency criminal law enacted with the intention of curtailing the nationalist and revolutionary activities during the First World War.
2) The Act allowed suspects to be tried by special tribunals each consisting of three Commissioners appointed by the Local Government.
3) The act empowered the tribunal to inflict sentences of death, transportation for life, and imprisonment of up to ten years for the violation of rules or orders framed under the act.

1) In order to crush the growing nationalist movement, the government adopted many measures.
2) Lord Curzon created the Criminal Intelligence Department (CID) in 1903 to secretly collect information on the activities of nationalists.
3) The colonial state also resorted to banning meetings, printing and circulation of seditious materials for propaganda, and by detaining the suspects.

1) The patriotism glued with the assertion of Hindu beliefs was not accepable to the Muslims.
2) Also much like their predecessors the leaders of the swadeshi movement failed to penetrate the larger section of the society.
3) The Surat split of 1907 was another contributing factor to this decline.

1) Swadeshi means 'of one's own country'.
2) The origin of the idea can be traced to 1872 when Mahadev Govind Ranade, in a series of lectures in Poona, popularised the idea of Swadeshi.
3) According to Ranade, the goods produced in one's own country should be given preference even if the use of such goods proved to be less satisfactory.

Madras Native Association (MNA) on 26 February 1852.
Indian Society - 1865
East Indian Association - 1866
Madras Mahajana Sabha (MMS) on 16 May 1884

1) The English Education act was passed by the council of india in 1835.
2) T.B Macaulay drafted this system of education introduced in India.
3) Consequently, the colonial administration started schools, Colleges and Universities, imparting English and modern education, in India.
4) The colonial government Expected this section of educated  Indians to be the loyal to the british and act as the pillars of the british Raj. 

1) The indigo revolt of 1859-60 was one of the responses from the Indian farmer to the oppressive policy of the British.
2) Indian tenants were forced to grow indigo by their planters who were mostly Europeans. Used to dye the clothes indigo was in high demand in Europe.

1) The first successful Indian entrepreneur, he is called the father of the Indian modem industry.
2) In order to help his father's business, he travelled all over the world and this exposure helped him in his future endeavours.

The case came before Sessions Judge H.E. Holmes who had earned notoriety while serving as Sessions Judge of Gorakhpur for awarding death sentence to 172 peasants for their involvement in the Chauri Chaura case.

Philip Spratt, Ban Bradley and Lester Hutchinson

1. The National Assembly abolished feudalism in the country.
2. In 1789 the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen was adopted.
3. In 1791, the National Assembly drafted the constitution by which the powers of the king were limited.
4. People started forming political clubs to discuss the problems they faced.
5. One such club which attained popularity was the Jacobin Club in Paris.
6. On 2 September 1792, the mob descended on the prisons and summarily executed those they believed to be royalists.
7. In 1792 the new Convention abolished monarchy and declared France a republic.
8. King Louis XVI was brought before the People s tribunal and executed by guillotine on 21 January 1793.
9. As the government and the base of society were radicalised, so the Jacobian group leader Robasesphere also hanged.

(i) Portugal led the way first in exploration, discovering the Canaries, Madeira and the Azores.
(ii) Sailors sent out by Prince Henry, the Navigator reached Guinea Coast of Africa.
(iii) Later Bartholomew Diaz rounded the Cape of Good Hope. In 1492 Columbus came to a land of America.
(iv) Vasco da Gama reached the island of Mozambique.
(v) Later, he reached part of India and opened avenues for direct trade.
(vi) Cabral sailed to India, following the route of Vasco da Gama, and reached Kozhikode.
(vii) These new maritime discoveries, led t< ; >the direct trade of Europeans to the countries of the East.

(i) Major parts of Spain like Aragon and Castile were under the control of the Moors.
(ii) Together King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella worked hard to drive away the Moors and unite Spain.
(iii) The king and queen took power in their hands and controlled the nobles by eliminating them from the royal councils.
(iv) This made Spain to emerge as a nation-state. England emerged as nation-states.
(v) There was conflict between two royal houses in England namely the House of york and House of Lancaster for the throne.
(vi) In this civil war, Henry Tudor emerged victorious and he started a new line of monarchy in England.
(vii) He entered into matrimonial alliance with Elizabeth of York family. This made England to emerge as a nation-state. France emerged as nation-states.
(viii) Burgundy and western parts of France was for long in English possession.
(ix) At the end of the hundred years war, Louis XI Burgundy returned, after he had driven the English out of the country.
(x) Finally brought under control and Burgundy became part of France in about 1483. This made France to emerge as a nation-state.

1. Bismarck, transformed into a powerful state with the objective of uniting the Germanic states under its leadership.
2. He adopted a "blood and iron policy to achieve the unification".
3. He realised that the unification of Germany was not possible without an armed conflict with Austria and France.
4. He sparked conflict with Austria and France through diplomatic moves.
5. He also got the support of Piedmont-Sardinia which wanted to drive Austria out of Venetia.
6. With the victory of the Austrian-Prussian War, he formed the Northern German Federation under the leadership of Prussia.
7. Bismarck his attention to create a rift between Prussia and France to unite the southern German states.
8. At the end of the Franck-Prussian War, Germany combined the unification of Northern and southern Germany.

1. Etienne-Gabriel Morally, the Utopian thinker, proposed a communistic organisation of society.
2. The term "Utopian Socialism" was first used by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels.
3. Utopian Socialists recommended the establishment of model communities.
4. Saint-Simon suggested that scientists take the place of priests in the social order.
5. Fourier believed that social conditions were the primary cause of human misery.
6. Robert Owen had developed a theory of Utopian Socialism based on social equality and cooperation.
7. Proudhon wanted to replace nation-state with federations of autonomous communes.
8. Louis Blanc argued that socialism cannot be achieved without state power.

1. In 1918 a Society for the Study of Marxism was formed in Peking University.
2. Among the students who attended was a young assistant librarian by the name of Mao Tse-tung.
3. In China, Kuomintang government became notorious for its corruption and gangsterism.
4. Mao knew that the Kuomintang grip on the towns was too strong. So concentrated his energies on organizing the peasantry.
5. He retreated into the wild mountains on the border between the provinces of Kiangsi and Hunan.
6. Later, Mao wanted to move out of Human for safer territory.
7. Therefore, the Communist anny set out on what came to be known as the Long March in 1934.
8. As a result of the Long Maffih, Mao became the ruler of the people in china.

1. According to the Treaty of Versailles, in 1935, Hitler held a general referendum in the SAR area and annexed it with Germany.
2. In 1936 Hitler flouted the Treaty of Versailles by sending troops to occupy Rhineland.
3. The Nazi state was established in Austria by the pressure of Hitler.
4. Then the German forces entered Vienna and began to establish control over the country.
5. Before the referendum was held in the Sudetenland, Hitler occupied it with his army.
6. In the Munich conference, the Prime ministers of Britain, France, Germany and Italy issued the approval.
7. Using the conflict in Czechoslovakia, Hitler sent German forces to occupy the conflict zone.
8. Hitler, who was aiming to occupy the whole of Europe, On September 1, 1939, the attack on Poland was held.
9. The reason for the Second World War was the rejection of Britains ultimatum to leave Germany in Poland.

1) Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi was born in the coastal town of Porbandar in 1869. When he returned to India in 1915 he had a record of fighting against inequalities imposed by the racist government of South Africa.
2) Gandhi certainly wanted to be of help to forces of nationalism in India. He was in touch with leaders India as he had come into contact, with Congress leaders while mobilizing support for the South African Indian cause earlier. Impressed by activities and ideas of Gopala Krishna Gokhale, he acknowledged him as his political Guru.
3) On his return to India, following Gokhale's advice, Gandhi, who was away from India for over two decades, spent a year travelling all over the country acquainting himself with the situation.
4) He established his Sabarmati Ashram at Ahmedabad but did not take active part in political movements including the Home Rule movement.
5) Champaran Movement (1917): It was not difficult for Gandhi to convince the committee of the difficulties of the poor peasants. The report was accepted and implemented resulting in the release of the indigo cultivators of the bondage of European planters who gradually had to withdraw from Champaran itself.
6) Gandhi's call for protest on the issues of Khilafat, and Rowlatt Act and as a response the British government's repressive measures leading to the Jallianwalla Bagh massacre prompted the Congress to launch non-cooperation movement.
7) The Congress boycotted the Sirmon Commission and the first Round Table Conference and intensified the struggle by launching civil disobedience movement, in the wake of fruitless outcome of Second Round Table Conference.
8) Gandhi's Dandi March and Rajaji's Salt March to Vedaranyam in Tamilnadu succeeded in mobilizing the masses 'for the nationalist cause.

1) Non-cooperation government is disobey the rule but Civil Disobedient Movement is don't care about the rule.
2) The Khilafat Conference, at the instance of Gandhi, decided to launch the non-cooperation movement from 31 August 1920. Earlier an all party meet at Allahabad had decided on a programme of boycott of government educational institutions and their law courts.
3) The Congress met in a special session at Calcutta in September 1920 and resolved to accept Gandhi's proposal on non-cooperation with the colonial state till such time as Khilafat and Punjab grievances were redressed and self-government established.
4)  Non-cooperation movement included boycott of schools, colleges, courts, government offices, legislatures, foreign goods, return of government conferred titles and awards. Alternatively, national schools, panchayats were to be set up and swadeshi goods manufactured and used. The struggle at a later stage was to include no tax campaign and mass civil disobedience, etc.
5) The Viceroy admitted in a letter to the Secretary of State that the movement had seriously affected lower classes in certain areas of UP, Bengal, Assam, Bihar and Orissa the peasants have been affected.
6) Impressed by the intensity of the movement, in a special session the Congress reiterated the intensification of the movement. In February 1922 Gandhi announced that he would lead a mass civil disobedience, including no tax campaigns, at Bardoli, if the government did not ensure press freedom and release the prisoners within seven days.

1) As pointed out earlier, thanks to the campaigns conducted by Bal Gangadhar Tilak Bipin Chandra Pal and Lala Lajpat Rai, often referred to as the Lal-Bal-Pal triumvirate, Maharashtra, Bengal, Punjab, emerged as the epicentres of militant nationalism during the Swadeshi phase.
2) Aurobindo Ghose was another influential figure in the militant leadership. The nationalism of this form was more assertive compared to the early Indian nationalism.
3) Both the groups, moderate and militant, were well aware of the evils or the wrong doings of the British rule.
4) The moderates, however, worked under the belief that the British rule in India could be reformed by convincing the rulers through representation and petitioning.
5) The militant nationalist, on the other hand, was of the opinion that the colonial rulers would never be amenable to reason, as they would not like to give up the advantages of an empire.
6) Militant nationalism also changed the nature of political pressure from the earlier force of public opinion of educated Indians to the protesting masses.
7) Despite these changes, the militant nationalism phase retained a continuity from the moderate phase.
8) This continuity was evident in the inability to transcend the peaceful method of struggle and for the most parts militant nationalism remained tied to the idea of non-violence. However, they appealed to the patriotic sentiments of the people using the religious symbols.
Swaraj or Political Independence
1) One of the common goals of the militant leaders was to achieve Swaraj or Self Rule. However, the leaders differed on the meaning of Swaraj.
2) For Tilak, Swaraj was restricted to the Indian control over the administration or rule by the natives, but not total severance of relation with Britain.
3) In Bipin Chandra Pal's view, Swaraj was the attainment of complete freedom from any foreign rule.

The major objectives and demands of INC were
Constitutional
Opportunity for participation in the government was one of the major demands of the Indian National Congress. It demanded Indian representation in the government.
Economic
High land revenue was one of the major factors that contributed to the oppression of the peasants. It demanded reduction in the land revenue and protection of peasants against exploitation of the zamindars. The Congress also advocated the imposition of heavy tax on the imported goods for the benefit of swadeshi goods.
Administrative
Higher officials who had responsibility of administration in India were selected through civil services examinations conducted in Britain. This meant that educated Indians who could not afford to go to London had no opportunity to get high administrative jobs. Therefore, Indianisation of services through simultaneous Indian Civil Services Examinations in England and India was a major demand of the Congress.
Judicial
Because of the partial treatment against the Indian political activists by English judges it demanded the complete separation of the Executive and the Judiciary.
Contributions of Early Nationalists (1885-1915)
1) The early nationalists in the INC came from the elite sections of the society. Lawyers, college and university teachers, doctors, journalists and such others represented the Congress. However, they came from different regions of the country and this made INC a truly a national political organisation.
2) These leaders of the INC adopted the constitutional methods of presenting petitions, prayers and memorandums and thereby earned the moniker of "Moderates".
3) It was also the time some sort of an understanding about colonialism was evolving in India There was no ready-made anti-colonial understanding available for reference in the late nineteenth century when the INC was formed.
4) It was the early nationalists who helped the formulation of the idea of we as a nation. The were developing the indigenous anti-colonial ideology and a strategy on their own which helped future mass leaders like M. K Gandhi.
5) From the late 1890s there were growing differences within the INC Leaders like Bipin Chandra Pal, Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Lala Lajpat Rai were advocating radical appro ache instead of merely writing petitions, prayers and memorandums.
6) These advocates of radical methods came to be called the "extremists" as against those who were identified as moderates. Their objective became clear in 1897 when Tilak raised the clarion call "Swaraj is my birth right and I shall have it".
7) Tilak and his militant followers were now requesting Swaraj -instead of economic or administrative reforms that the moderates were requesting through their petitions and prayers.
8) Though they criticised each other, it would be wrong to place them in the opposing poles. Both moderates and militants, with their own methods, were significant elements of the larger Indian nationalist movement.
9) In fact, they contributed towards the making of the swadeshi movement. The partition of Bengal in 1905, by the colonial government, which you will be studying in the next lesson, was vehemently opposed by the Indians.
10) The swadeshi movement of 1905, directly opposed the British rule and encouraged the ideas of swadeshi enterprise, national education, self-help and use of Indian languages.
11) The method of mass mobilisation and boycott of British goods and institutions suggested by the radicals was also accepted by the Moderates.

Hindu nationalism:
1) In the Punjab communalism as a powerful movement had set in completely. In 1924 Lala Lajpat Rai openly advocated the partition of the Punjab into Hindu and Muslim Provinces.
2) The Hindu Mahasabha, represented the forces of Hindu revivalism in the political domain, raised the slogan of' Akhand Hindustan' against the Muslim League's demand of separate electorates for Muslims.
3)  Ever since its inception, the Mahasabha's role in the freedom struggle has been rather controversial. While not supportive of British rule, the Mahasabha did not offer its full support to the nationalist movement either.
4) Since the Indian National Congress had to mobilize the support of all classes and communities against foreign domination, the leaders of different communities could not press for principle of secularism firmly for the fear of losing the support of religious minded groups.
5) The Congress under the leadership of Gandhi held a number of unity conferences during this period, but to no avail.
Muslim nationalism
1) One great outcome of the efforts at unity, however, was an offer by the Conference of Muslims, which met at Delhi on March 20, 1927 to give up separate electorates if four proposals were accepted.
1. the separation of Sind from Bombay
2. Reforms for the Frontier and Baluchistan
3. Representation by population in the Punjab and Bengal and
4. Thirty-three per cent seats for the Muslims in the Central Legislature.
Indian nationalism
1) The nationalism of the Indian National Congress was personified by Mahatma Gandhi, who rejected the narrow nationalism exemplified by the Arya Samaj and the Aligargh movement and strove to evolve a political identity that transcended the different religions.
2) Notwithstanding the state-supported communalism of different hues, the Indian National Congress remained a dominant political force in India.
3) In the 1937 elections, Congress won in seven of the eleven provinces and fonned the largest party in three others. The Muslim League's performance was dismal. It succeeded in winning only 4.8 per cent of the Muslim votes.
4) The Congress had emerged as a mass secular party. Yet the Government branded it a Hindu organisation and projected the Muslim League as the real representative of the Muslims and treated it on a par with the Congress.
5) Hindu nationalism, Muslim nationalism and secular nationalism competed with each other to politicise the people in their fight against British colonialism.

1) The Indian National Congress, in contrast to the violent actions of revolutionaries, mobilised the masses for non-violent struggles. The Congress under the leadership of Gandhi gave priority to the problems of peasants.
2) In the context of great agrarian distress, deepened by world-wide economic depression, the Congress mobilised the peasantry. The Congress adopted a no-rent and no-tax campaign as a part of its civil disobedience programme. Under the pressure of Great Depression, socio-economic demands were sharply articulated in its Karachi Session of the Indian National Congress.
3) The freedom struggle was taking a new shape. Peasants organised themselves into Kisan Sabhas and industrial workers were organized by the trade unions, made their presence felt in a big way in the freedom struggle. The Indian National Congress had become a mass party during the 1930s. The Congress leadership, which was now taking a left turn under Nehru's leadership, began to talk about an egalitarian society based on social and economic justice.
4) The Karachi session held in March 1931, presided over by Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel, adopted a resolution on Fundamental Rights and Duties and provided an insight into what the economic policy of an independent India. In some ways, it was the manifesto of the Indian National Congress for independent India. These rights and the social and economic programmes were derived from a firm conviction that political freedom and economic freedom were inseparable.
5) Even a cursory look at the fundamental rights solution will tell you that all the basic rights that the British denied to the Indians found a prominent place in the Resolution. The colonial government curtailed civil liberties and freedom by passing draconian acts and ordinances. Gandhian ideals and Nehru's socialist vision also found a place in the list of rights that the Indian National Congress promised to ensure in free India.

1) Bhagat Singh was born to Kishan Singh (father) and Vidyavati Kaur (mother) on 28 September 1907 in Jaranwala, Lyallpur district, Punjab, now a part of Pakistan. His father was a liberal and his family was a family of freedom fighters.
2) The Jallianwala Bagh massacre happened when Bhagat Singh was 14 years. Early in his youth, he was associated with the Naujawan Bharat Sabha and the Hindustan Republican Association.
3) The latter organisation was founded by Sachin Sanyal and Jogesh Chatterji. It was reorganised subsequently in September 1928 as the Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (H.S.R.A) by Bhagat Singh and his comrades.
4) Socialist ideals and the October Revolution in Russia of 1917 were large influences on these revolutionaries. Bhagat Singh was one of the leaders of the H.S.R.A along with Chandrashekhar Azad, Shivaram Rajguru and Sukhdev Thapar.
Bhagat Singh's Bomb Throwing
1) The image that comes to our mind at the very mention of Bhagat Singh's name is that of the bomb he threw in the Central Legislative Assembly on April 8, 1929. The bombs did not kill anybody. It was intended as a demonstrative action, an act of protest against the draconian laws of the British. They chose the day on which the Trade Disputes Bill, an anti-labour legislation was introduced in the assembly.
Lahore Conspiracy Case
1) Bhagat Singh along with Rajguru, Sukhdev, Jatindra Nath Das and 21 others were arrested and tried for the murder of Saunders (the case was known as the Second Lahore Conspiracy Case).
2) Jatindra Nath Das died in the jail after 64 days of hunger strike against the discriminatory practices and poor conditions in jail. The verdict in the bomb throwing case had been suspended until the trial of Lahore Conspiracy trials was over. It was in this case that Bhagat Singh, Rajguru and Sukhdev were sentenced to death on 7 October 1930.
3) A letter from them to the Governor of Punjab shows their courage and their optimism over the future of India even while facing death for the cause of freedom of their country. It says, 'the days of capitalism and imperialism are numbered. The war neither began with us nor is going to end with our lives. According to the verdict of your court we had waged a war and we are therefore war prisoners. And we claim to be treated as such i.e.. we claim to be shot dead instead of being hanged.
4) Bhagat Singh, Rajguru and Sukhdev were hanged early in the morning of March 23, 1931 in the Lahore Jail. They faced the gallows with courage, shouting Inquilab Zindabad and Down with British Imperialism until their last breath.
5) The history of freedom struggle is incomplete without the revolutionary strand of nationalism and the ultimate sacrifice of these revolutionaries.

1) Madras played a pivotal role in the history of labour movement of India
2) The first trade union in the modem sense, the Madras Labour Union, was formed in 1918 by B.P. Wadia.
3) The union was formed mainly due to the ill-treatment of Indian worker in the Buckingham and Carnatic Mills, Perambur. The working conditions was poor.
4)  Short interval for mid-day meal, frequent assaults on workers by the European assistants and inadequate wages led to the formation of this union. 
5) This union adopted collective bargaining and used trade unionism as a weapon for class struggle.

1) The Ghadar Movement was an important episode in India's freedom struggle.
2) A ship named Komagatamaru, filled with Indian immigrants was turned back from Canada. As the ship returned to India several of its passengers were killed or arrested in a clash with the British police.
3) This incident left a deep mark on the Indian nationalist movement.

1) The local public, angered over the arrest of the prominent swadeshi leaders, reacted violently. Shops were closed in a general show of defiance.
2) The municipality building and the police station in Tirunelveli were set on fire. More importantly, the mill workers came out in large numbers to protest the arrest of swadeshi leaders.
3) After a few incidents of confrontation with the protesting crowd, the police open fired and four people were killed.
4) On 7 July 1908, V.O.C and Subramania Siva were found guilty and imprisoned on charges of sedition.
5) Siva was awarded a sentence of 10 years of transportation for his seditious speech whereas v.o.c got a life term (20 years) for abetting him. V.O.C was given another life sentence for his own seditious speech.

1) Dadabhai Naoroji's major contribution to the Indian nationalist movement was his book Poverty and Un-Bntish Rule of the British in India (1901). In this book, he put forward the concept of 'drain of wealth'.
2) He stated that in any country the tax raised would have been spent for the wellbeing of the people of that country.
3) But in British India, taxes collected in India were spent for the welfare of England Naoroji argued that India had exported an average of 13 million pounds worth of goods to Britain each year from 1835 to 1872 with no corresponding return.
4) The goods were in lieu of payments for profits to Company shareholders living in Britain, guaranteed interest to investors in railways, pensions to retired officials and generals, interest for the money borrowed from England to meet war expenses for the British conquest of territories in India as well as outside India
5) All these, going in the name of Home Charges, Naoroji asserted, made up a loss of 30 million pounds a year.

G. Subramaniam, Viraraghavachari, Ananda Charlu, Rangiah, Balaji Rao and Salem Ramaswamy.

1) The introduction of printing press in India was an event of great significance. It helped people to spread, modem ideas of self-government, democracy, civil rights and industrialisation.
2) The press became the critic of politics. It addressed the people on several issues affecting the country.
3) Raja Rammohan Roy's Sam bad Kaumudi (1821) in Bengali and Mirat-Ul-Akbar (1822) in Persian played a progressive role in educating the people on issues of public importance.
4) Later on a number of nationalist and vernacular news papers came to be launched to build public opinion and they did yeomen service in fostering nationalist consciousness.
5) Among them Amrit Bazaar Patrika, The Bombay Chronicle, The Tribune, The Indian Mirror, The Hindu and Swadesamitran were prominent.

Within twenty years after independence, India achieved self-sufficiency in food production.
1) Total rice production increased from 35 million tonnes in 1960-61 to 104 million tonnes in 2011-12.
2) wheat production was even more impressive, from 11 million tonnes to 94 million tonnes  during the same period
3) This also created an enormous demand for chemical fertilizers and pesticides, and these industries grew as well.
4) There is also a sustained increase in the production of milk and eggs. A large reserve stock of food grain was built up by the government through buying the surplus food grain from the farmers and storing this in warehouses of the Food Corporation of India (FCI).

1) The challenges before free India included grappling with the consequences of partition, planning the economy and reforming the education system, making a Constitution that reflected the aspirations kindled by the freedom struggle, merger of the Princely states, and resolving the diversity on the basis of languages spoken by the people with the needs of a nation-state.
2) Further, a foreign policy that was in tune with the ideals of democracy, sovereignty and fraternity had to be formulated.

Communalism:
1) Organising a religious group on the basis of its hostility towards the followers of other religions to fight even material issues.
2) Communalism as an ideology or movement has been defined in various ways by various scholars.
3) According to Nehru, communalism is one of the obvious examples of backward-looking people trying to hold on to something that is wholly out of place in the modem world and is essentially opposed to the concept of nationalism.
4) According to another scholar, communalism denotes organised attempt of a group to bring about change in the face of resistance from other groups or the government through collective mobilisation based on a narrow ideology.

1) The bloody Malabar rebellion of 1921, where Muslim peasants were pitted against both the British rulers and Hindu landlords, gave another reason for the renewed campaign of the Hindu Mahasabha.
2) Though the outbreak was basically an agrarian revolt, communal passion ran high in consequence of which Gandhi himself viewed it as a Hindu-Muslim conflict.
3) Gandhi wanted Muslim leaders to tender a public apology for the happenings in Malabar.