1. The French people believed that political prisoners in the jails were planning to join a plot of the counter-revolutionaries.
2. So the mob descended on the prisons.
3. Summarily executed those they believed to be royalists.
4. In all about 1,200 prisoners were killed in what came to be known as the September Massacres.

1. The concepts of democracy and republic became widespread.
2. The political and social changes were on the lines of democracy and equality.
3. Education gained prominence.
4. The principle of federalism became widespread.

(i) Cabral sailed to India, following the route of Vasco da Gama, and reached Kozhikode.
(ii) The zamorin ruler allowed Cabral to build a fort and carry on trade.
(iii) He then left for Cochin, further south, where he was warmly received.
(iv) After establishing a port at Cannanore Cabral returned with six shiploads of spices to Portugal.

(i) The most negative result of the Commercial Revolution was the revival of slavery. Slavery had virtually disappeared from European society by the end of the first millennium.
(ii) But the development of mining and plantation farming in the Spanish, Portuguese and English colonies led to the recruitment of slaves as unskilled labourers.
(iii) The attempt to enslave native Americans ended in failure, as they proved too tough to manage. The problem was solved by importing Africans.
(iv) This transatlantic slave trade that exported more than 11 million Africans to the Americas is a sordid story that is a shame on the making of the modem world.

1. He did not employ children below the age of line his industries.
2. Later he criticised private property and profit.
3. He began to advocate the establishment of new cooperative communities that would combine industrial and agricultural production.
4. Owen had developed a theory of Utopian Socialism.

1) A meeting between Gandhi and Ambedkar on this issue of separate electorates before they went to London to attend the Second Round Table Conference ended in failure.
2) There was an encounter between the two again in the RTC about the same issue. It ended in a deadlock and finally the issue was left to be arbitrated by the British Prime Minister Ramsay McDonald.
3) The British government announced in August 1932 what came to be known as the Communal Award. Ambedkar's demands for separate electorates with reserved seats were conceded.

pro-changers
1) After suspension of Non-cooperation, Chittaranjan Das and Motilal Nehru proposed a new line of activity.
2) They wanted to return to active politics which included entry into electoral politics and demonstrate that the nationalists were capable of obstructing the working of the reformed legislature by capturing them and arousing nationalist spirit.
3) This group came to be called the 'Swarajists and pro-changers'. In Tamil Nadu, Satyamurti joined this group.
4) The pro-changers launched the Swarajya party as a part of the Congress.
no changers
1) There was another group which opposed council entry and wanted to continue the Gandhian line by mobilizing the masses.
2) This team led by Rajagopalachari, Vallabhai Patel and Rajendra Prasad was called 'No changers'.
3)  They argued that electoral politics would divert the attention of nationalists and pull them away from the work of mass mobilization and their issues.
4) They favoured the continuation of the Gandhian constructive programme of spinning, temperance, Hindu-Muslim unity, removal of untouchability and mobilise rural masses and prepare them for new mass movements.

1) There was enormous pressure on Ambedkar to save Gandhi's life. Consultations, confabulations, meetings, prayers were held all over and ultimately after a meeting with Gandhi in the jail, the communal award was modified.
2) The new agreement, between Ambedkar and Gandhians, called the 'Poona Pact' was signed.
3) The Poona Pact took away separate electorates but guaranteed reserved seats for the untouchables.
4) The provision of reserved seats was incorporated in the constitutional changes which were made. It was also built into the Constitution of independent India.

1) The Ghadar Movement was an important episode in India's freedom struggle.
2) A ship named Komagatamaru, filled with Indian immigrants was turned back from Canada. As the ship returned to India several of its passengers were killed or arrested in a clash with the British police.
3) This incident left a deep mark on the Indian nationalist movement.

1) A conspiracy was hatched there to kill Douglas Kingsford, notorious for his cruel ways of dealing with the swadeshi agitators.
2) Two young revolutionaries - 18-year-old Khudiram Bose and 19-year-old Prafulla Chaki were entrusted with the task of carrying out the killing.
3) On 30 April 1908, they mistakenly threw a bomb on a carriage, that, instead of killing Kingsford, killed two English women.
4) Prafulla Chaki committed suicide and Khudiram Bose was arrested and hanged for the murder.
5) Aurobindo Ghose, along with his brother Barinder Kumar Ghose and thirty-five other comrades, were arrested Chittaranjan Das took up the case. It came to be known as the Alipore Bomb case.

1) In 1908, the abject working and living conditions of the Coral Mill workers attracted the attention of V.O.C and Siva.
2) In the next few days, both the leaders addressed the mill workers. In March 1908, the workers of the Coral Cotton Mills, inspired by the address went on strike. It was one of the earliest organised labour agitations in India.
3) The strike of the mill workers was fully backed by the nationalist newspapers. The mill owners, however, did not budge and was supported by the government which had decided to suppress the strike.
4) To further increase the pressure on the workers, the leaders were prohibited from holding any meetings in Tuticorin.
5) Finally, the mill owners decided to negotiate with the workers and concede their demands.

1) In 1815, the Governor of Madras received a communication from the Governor of Ceylon asking for "coolies" to work on the coffee plantations.
2) The Madras Governor forwarded this letter to the collector of Thanjavur, who reported that the people were very much attached to the soil and unless some incentive was provided it was not easy to make them move out of their native soil.
3) But the outbreak of two famines (1833 and 1843) forced the people, without any prompting from the government, to leave for Ceylon to work as coolies in coffee and tea plantations under the indentured labour system.

G. Subramaniam, Viraraghavachari, Ananda Charlu, Rangiah, Balaji Rao and Salem Ramaswamy.

1) The MNA petition was discussed in the Parliament in March 1853. H.D. Seymour, Chairman of the Indian Reform Society, came to Madras in October 1853.
2) He visited places like Guntur, Cuddalore, Tiruchirappalli, Salem and Tirunelveli.
3) However, as the Charter Act of 1853 allowed British East India Company to continue its rule in India, the MNA organised an agitation for the transfer of British territories in India to the direct control of the Crown.
4) MNA sent its second petition to British Parliament, signed by fourteen thousand individuals, pleading the termination of Company rule in India.

1) The purpose was to provide rural households with assets which would improve their economic position, so that they would be able to come out of poverty.
2) These could be improvements to the land, supply of cows or goats for dairying or help to set up small shops or other trade-related businesses.
3) The capital cost of the assets provided was covered by subsidies and loans varied based on economic situation of the family receiving assistance.
4) The functioning and the effects of IRDP were assessed by many economists as well as government bodies.
5) The ultimate conclusion was that the programme did not really deliver on the benefits that were intended,
6) The programme was restructured in 1999 as a programme to promote self-employment of the rural poor.

Tenancy reform legislation was aimed at achieving three ends:
(i) to regulate the rent;
(ii) to secure the rights of the tenant;
(iii) to confer ownership rights on the tenants by expropriating the land of the landowners.

1. Mutual respect for each other's territorial integrity and sovereignty.
2. Mutual non-aggression.
3. Mutual non-interference in each other's internal affairs.
4. Equality and cooperation for mutual benefit.
5. Peaceful co-existence.

1) Elections were held, based on the 1935 Act, to the Provincial Assemblies in August 1946. These elected assemblies in turn were to elect the Central Assembly, which would also become the Constituent Assembly.
2) The constitution also committed the nation to the principle of universal adult franchise, and an autonomous election commission.
3) The constitution also underscored the independence of the judiciary as much as it laid down sovereign law-making powers with the representatives of the people.
4) The members of the constituent assembly were not averse to learn and pick up features from the constitutions from all over the world; and at the same time they were clear that the exercise was not about copying provisions from the various constitutions from across the world.

1) Patel had been negotiating with the Maharaja of Kashmir since 1946, Hari Singh was opposed to accession.
2) However, in a few months after independence - in October 1947 - marauders from Pakistan raided Kashmir and there was no way that Maharaja Hari Singh could resist this attack on his own. Before India went to his rescue the Instrument of Accession was signed by him at the instance of Patel.
3) Thus Kashmir too became an integral part of the Indian Union.

The outbreak of Second World War and Britain's decision to involve India in the War without consulting Congress ministries in provinces, provoked the leaders of Indian National Congress and Gandhi.
1. The Congress ministers resigned in protest.
2. The Cripps Mission arrived in March 1942 to assuage the nationalists.
3.  But its proposals bore no fruit.
4.  Gandhi decided to embark on the Quit India Movement in August 1942.

1) Subhas Chandra Bose was isolated within the Congress, as most leaders in the organisation's top refused cooperation with him.
2) Bose resigned and the AICC session at Calcutta elected Rajendra Prasad as president.
3) Bose founded the Forward Bloc to function within the Congress and was eventually removed from all positions in the organization in August 1939.

1) Cripps promised Dominion Status and a constitution-making body after the war.
2) The constitution making body was to be partly elected by the provincial assemblies and nominated members from the Princely states.
3) The draft also spelt out the prospect of Pakistan.
4) It said that any province that was not prepared to accept the new constitution would have the right to enter into a separate agreement with Britain regarding its future status.
5) The draft did not contain anything new.
6) Nehru recalled later: 'When I read these proposals for the first time I was profoundly depressed.

Communalism:
1) Organising a religious group on the basis of its hostility towards the followers of other religions to fight even material issues.
2) Communalism as an ideology or movement has been defined in various ways by various scholars.
3) According to Nehru, communalism is one of the obvious examples of backward-looking people trying to hold on to something that is wholly out of place in the modem world and is essentially opposed to the concept of nationalism.
4) According to another scholar, communalism denotes organised attempt of a group to bring about change in the face of resistance from other groups or the government through collective mobilisation based on a narrow ideology.

Centrally organized political parties exclusively for Muslims, had the following objectives:
1) To promote among the Muslims of India feelings of loyalty to the British Government, and remove any misconception that may arise as to the instruction of Government with regard to any of its measures.
2) To protect and advance the political rights and interests of Muslims of India, and to respectfully represent their needs and aspirations to the Government.
3) To prevent the rise among the Muslims of India of any feeling of hostility towards other communities without prejudice to the aforementioned objects of the League.

1) The first major steel industry - Tata Iron and Steel Company (TISCO) - was set up by the Tatas in 1907 as a part of swadeshi effort in Sakchi, Bihar.
2) Prior to this, a group of Europeans had attempted in 1875 to found the Bengal iron Company.
3) Following this, the Bengal Iron and Steel Company was set up in 1889. However, TISCO made a huge headway than the other endeavourers in this sector.
4) Its production increased from 31,000 tons in 1912-13 to 1,81,000 tons in 1917-18.