1. Intellectuals played a key role in preparing the soil for the outbreak of the French Revolution
2. The writings of Voltaire and Rousseau acted as an impetus to the revolution.
3. Montesquieu, argued for the division of power among the legislative, executive and judiciary.
4. Rousseau, argued that the relationship between the rulers and ruled should be bound by a contract.

1. Britain recognised the freedom colonies and the formation of the United States of America.
2. France gained certain British territories in West Indies, India and Africa.
3. Spain obtained Florida from Great Britain
4. Holland and England maintained the status quo that prevailed before the war.

(i) On 3 August 1492 Columbus sailed from the harbour of Palos, with three small ships.
(ii) After a voyage of two months, he came to a land which he believed to be India.
(iv) But it wag really a new continent, America.
(v) They were called Indians because, he believed that the land he had discovered was India.

(i) A French Protestant he opposed the activities of the Church.
(ii) He was excommunicated for fighting the Pope. After his excommunication, he settled In Geneva, Switzerland.
(iii) His book titled 'Institutes of the Christian Religion' in Latin contains his core ideas.
(iv) Calvin was a great organiser and for a while he controlled the

(i) John Cabot, an Itali are explorer saw the Canada and made it an English colony.
(ii) Giovanni da Verrazano, another Italian, explored the lands for the French.
(iii) He annexed provinces for the French in eastern Canada.
(iv) An English explorer named Henry Hudson wanted to find the passage from North America to the Pacific Ocean.

(i) Italians preserved the belief that they were descendants of the ancient Romans.
(ii) They looked back upon their ancestry with pride.
(iii) Italy had a more secular culture than most other parts of Latin Christendom.
(iv) The old cathedrals and paintings seemed to them gloomy and the old traditions irksome. So in their search for something more to their write page, they discovered books written in Latin.
(v) They learnt to write Latin as the ancient Romans did.

1) Gandhi attended the Second RTC but the government was adamant and declined to concede his demands.
2) He returned empty handed and the Congress resolved on renewing the civil disobedience movement.
3) The economic depression had worsened the condition of the people in general and of the peasants in particular.
4) There were peasant protests all over the country. The leftists were in the forefront of the struggles of the workers and peasants.
5) The government was determined to crush the movement. All key leaders including Nehru.

pro-changers
1) After suspension of Non-cooperation, Chittaranjan Das and Motilal Nehru proposed a new line of activity.
2) They wanted to return to active politics which included entry into electoral politics and demonstrate that the nationalists were capable of obstructing the working of the reformed legislature by capturing them and arousing nationalist spirit.
3) This group came to be called the 'Swarajists and pro-changers'. In Tamil Nadu, Satyamurti joined this group.
4) The pro-changers launched the Swarajya party as a part of the Congress.
no changers
1) There was another group which opposed council entry and wanted to continue the Gandhian line by mobilizing the masses.
2) This team led by Rajagopalachari, Vallabhai Patel and Rajendra Prasad was called 'No changers'.
3)  They argued that electoral politics would divert the attention of nationalists and pull them away from the work of mass mobilization and their issues.
4) They favoured the continuation of the Gandhian constructive programme of spinning, temperance, Hindu-Muslim unity, removal of untouchability and mobilise rural masses and prepare them for new mass movements.

1) There was enormous pressure on Ambedkar to save Gandhi's life. Consultations, confabulations, meetings, prayers were held all over and ultimately after a meeting with Gandhi in the jail, the communal award was modified.
2) The new agreement, between Ambedkar and Gandhians, called the 'Poona Pact' was signed.
3) The Poona Pact took away separate electorates but guaranteed reserved seats for the untouchables.
4) The provision of reserved seats was incorporated in the constitutional changes which were made. It was also built into the Constitution of independent India.

1) The colonial government was enraged at the mass struggles and the enthusiasm of the masses as evidenced in the upsurge all over the country.
2) On 13th April 1919, in Amritsar town, in the Jallianwala enclave that the most heinous of political crimes was QerQetrated on-an unarmed mass of QeoQle by the British regime,
3) More than two thousand people had assembled at the venue to peacefully protest against the arrest of their leaders Satyapal and Saifudding Kitchen,
4) Michael O'Dwyer was the Lt. Governor of Punjab and the military commander was General Reginald Dyer.
5) They decided to demonstrate their power and teach a lesson to the dissenters. The part where the gathering was held had only one narrow entrance.
6)  Dyer ordered firing on the trapped crowd with machine guns and rifles till the ammunition was exhausted. While the official figures of the dead was only about 379 the real number 1 was over a thousand. Martial law was imposed all over Punjab and people were subject to untold indignities.

The demands of the Khilafat Movement were presented by Mohammad Ali to the diplomats in Paris in March 1920. They were:
1)  The Sultan of Turkey's position of Caliph should not be disturbed.,
2) The Muslim sacred places must be handed over to the Sultan and should be controlled by him.
3) The Sultan must be left with sufficient territory to enable him to defend the Islamic faith and
4) The Jazirat-ul-Arab (Arabia, Syria, Iraq, Palestine) must remain under his sovereignty

1)  The twin objectives of the Home Rule League were the establishment of Home Rule for India in British Empire and arousing in the Indian masses a sense of pride for the Motherland.
2) It refers to a self-government granted by a central or regional government to its dependent political units on condition that their people should remain politically loyal to it.
3) This was a common feature in the ancient Roman Empire and the modem British Empire.
4) In Ireland the Home Rule Movement gathered force in the 1880s and a system of Home Rule was established by the Government of Ireland Act (1920) in six counties of Northern Ireland and later by the Anglo-Irish Treaty (1921) in the remaining 26 counties in the south.

1) A conspiracy was hatched there to kill Douglas Kingsford, notorious for his cruel ways of dealing with the swadeshi agitators.
2) Two young revolutionaries - 18-year-old Khudiram Bose and 19-year-old Prafulla Chaki were entrusted with the task of carrying out the killing.
3) On 30 April 1908, they mistakenly threw a bomb on a carriage, that, instead of killing Kingsford, killed two English women.
4) Prafulla Chaki committed suicide and Khudiram Bose was arrested and hanged for the murder.
5) Aurobindo Ghose, along with his brother Barinder Kumar Ghose and thirty-five other comrades, were arrested Chittaranjan Das took up the case. It came to be known as the Alipore Bomb case.

1) The samitis were engaged in a range of activities such as physical and moral training of members, philanthropic work during the famines, epidemics, propagation of Swadeshi message during festivals, and organization of indigenous arbitration courts, and schools.
2) By its very nature boycott was passive action and its aim was to refuse to cooperate with the British administration.

1) The session of Congress was originally planned to be held in Poona, considered to be a stronghold of the militants.
2) Fearing a repeat of the Calcutta session, the moderates shifted the venue to Surat. The militants proposed Lala Lajpat Rai's name for the next Congress presidency opposing the moderate's candidate Rash Behari Ghosh. Lala Lajpat Rai, however, turned down the offer to avoid the split.
3) The matter finally boiled down to the question of retaining the four resolutions that were passed in the Calcutta session in 1906.
4) The Pherozeshah Mehta group sought removal of those items from the agenda In order to counter Mehta's manoeuvering, the militants decided to oppose the election of Rash Behari Gosh as president. The session ended in chaos.
5) The Indian National Congress, born in December 1885, was now split into two groups militant and moderate.

1) In 1815, the Governor of Madras received a communication from the Governor of Ceylon asking for "coolies" to work on the coffee plantations.
2) The Madras Governor forwarded this letter to the collector of Thanjavur, who reported that the people were very much attached to the soil and unless some incentive was provided it was not easy to make them move out of their native soil.
3) But the outbreak of two famines (1833 and 1843) forced the people, without any prompting from the government, to leave for Ceylon to work as coolies in coffee and tea plantations under the indentured labour system.

1) The introduction of plantation crops such as coffee, tea and sugar in Empire colonies such as Ceylon (Sri Lanka), Mauritius, Fiji, Malaya, the Caribbean islands, and South Africa required enormous labour.
2) The abolition of slavery in British India in 1843 also facilitated the processes of emigration to Empire colonies. In 1837 the number of immigrant Tamil labourers employed in Ceylon coffee estate was estimated at 10,000.
3) The industry developed rapidly and so did the demand for Tamil labour.
4) In 1846 its presence was estimated at 80,000 and in 1855 at 128,000 persons. In 1877, the famine year, there were nearly 380,000 Tamil labourers in Ceylon.

1) The MNA petition was discussed in the Parliament in March 1853. H.D. Seymour, Chairman of the Indian Reform Society, came to Madras in October 1853.
2) He visited places like Guntur, Cuddalore, Tiruchirappalli, Salem and Tirunelveli.
3) However, as the Charter Act of 1853 allowed British East India Company to continue its rule in India, the MNA organised an agitation for the transfer of British territories in India to the direct control of the Crown.
4) MNA sent its second petition to British Parliament, signed by fourteen thousand individuals, pleading the termination of Company rule in India.

Within twenty years after independence, India achieved self-sufficiency in food production.
1) Total rice production increased from 35 million tonnes in 1960-61 to 104 million tonnes in 2011-12.
2) wheat production was even more impressive, from 11 million tonnes to 94 million tonnes  during the same period
3) This also created an enormous demand for chemical fertilizers and pesticides, and these industries grew as well.
4) There is also a sustained increase in the production of milk and eggs. A large reserve stock of food grain was built up by the government through buying the surplus food grain from the farmers and storing this in warehouses of the Food Corporation of India (FCI).

1) Elections were held, based on the 1935 Act, to the Provincial Assemblies in August 1946. These elected assemblies in turn were to elect the Central Assembly, which would also become the Constituent Assembly.
2) The constitution also committed the nation to the principle of universal adult franchise, and an autonomous election commission.
3) The constitution also underscored the independence of the judiciary as much as it laid down sovereign law-making powers with the representatives of the people.
4) The members of the constituent assembly were not averse to learn and pick up features from the constitutions from all over the world; and at the same time they were clear that the exercise was not about copying provisions from the various constitutions from across the world.

The viceroy issued invitations on 151 June 1946 to the 14 men to join the interim government. Among them,
1. Mohammed Ali Jinnah,
2. Liaquat Ali Khan,
3. Mohammed Ismail Khan,
4. Khwaja Sir Nazimuddin and
5. Abdul Rab Nishtar,
were the Muslim League representatives invited to the Interim Government.

1) Cripps promised Dominion Status and a constitution-making body after the war.
2) The constitution making body was to be partly elected by the provincial assemblies and nominated members from the Princely states.
3) The draft also spelt out the prospect of Pakistan.
4) It said that any province that was not prepared to accept the new constitution would have the right to enter into a separate agreement with Britain regarding its future status.
5) The draft did not contain anything new.
6) Nehru recalled later: 'When I read these proposals for the first time I was profoundly depressed.

1) Minto-Morely Reforms, 1909 provided for eight seats to Muslims in the Imperial Legislative Council, out of the 27 non-officials to be elected.
2) In the Legislative Council of the provinces seats reserved for the Muslim candidates were: Madras 4; Bombay 4; Bengal 5.

1) The bloody Malabar rebellion of 1921, where Muslim peasants were pitted against both the British rulers and Hindu landlords, gave another reason for the renewed campaign of the Hindu Mahasabha.
2) Though the outbreak was basically an agrarian revolt, communal passion ran high in consequence of which Gandhi himself viewed it as a Hindu-Muslim conflict.
3) Gandhi wanted Muslim leaders to tender a public apology for the happenings in Malabar.

1) The first major steel industry - Tata Iron and Steel Company (TISCO) - was set up by the Tatas in 1907 as a part of swadeshi effort in Sakchi, Bihar.
2) Prior to this, a group of Europeans had attempted in 1875 to found the Bengal iron Company.
3) Following this, the Bengal Iron and Steel Company was set up in 1889. However, TISCO made a huge headway than the other endeavourers in this sector.
4) Its production increased from 31,000 tons in 1912-13 to 1,81,000 tons in 1917-18.