War in Eastern front, 1917
(i) The breakthrough in the east for the Central Powers came with the overthrow of Russia's Tsarist regime in the February 1917 revolution, allowing Germany to concentrate its efforts in the west.
(ii) Soviet Russia wanted peace and consequently it signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (3 March 1918) with Germany.

The nine states that opposed the Central powers were: Russia, France, Britain, Italy, the United States, Belgium, Serbia, Romania and Greece.

Mass production needed large scale supply of raw materials such as grains, cotton, rubber, crude oil, minerals, etc. Industrialists did not want to be dependent on other countries for the supply of raw materials.

Poor Laws:
In Britain the Poor Laws, as codified (1597-98) during Elizabethan period, provided relief for the aged, sick, and infant poor, as well as work for the able-bodied unemployed in workhouses.

(i) Karl Marx (1818-1883) and Friedrich Engels (1820-1895) made the most profound contribution to socialism;
(ii) Eventually their ideas came to be known as Marxism or Communism. They called their views on socialism as scientific socialism.

The Risorgimento (the resurrection of Italian spirit) was an ideological and literary movement that helped to arouse the national consciousness of the Italian people.

1. Persons who leave their own country in order to settle in another for political reasons.
2. In the present context, the nobles who fled France in the years following the French Revolution came to be called emigres.

French society had three main divisions or estates:
1. Clergy (the priestly class), Nobility (the landed and aristocratic class), and
2. The rest, the commoners, formed the unprivileged class.

The revolt of colonies against England was a direct consequence of England's intervention in the Seven Years' War.

Macadamisation means to pave the road by laying and compacting successive layers of broken stone, often with hot tar.

1. Luther at Wittenberg,
2. Huldrych Zwingli at Zurich, and
3. John Calvin at Geneva.

1. Henry, the Navigator was a Portuguese prince.
2. Though he never ventured into the sea, he started a school of navigation at Swes, Portugal.
3. He hired cartographers, shipbuilders and instrument makers to help sailors undertake Planned voyages.

1. Holy Communion (also known as the Eucharist) is a religious ceremony performed in church by Catholics. Catholic Christians partake of Holy Communion in remembrance of the sacrifices made by Jesus.
2. They accept bread and wine which are believed to symbolise (transubstantiation) the body and blood of Jesus Christ.

The work undertaken would create durable assets in rural areas like roads, canals, minor irrigation works and restoration of traditional water bodies.

Nehru was determined to create a socialist society, and he proclaimed that the state would direct industrial growth by investing in heavy industrial units and also exercise control over private industry to ensure long term objectives of growth and preventing exploitation by private business houses and capitalists.

The constitution of the States Reorganisation Commission, with FazliAli as Chairperson, and K.M. Panikkar and R.N. Husrau as members.

The long line of refugees walking crossing the borders was called 'kafila'.

C. Rajagopalachari and Bhulabhai Desai and ehru, where against launching Quit India movement.

Cow protectionists in the Punjab, the activities of Gaurakshini Sabhas in the Central Provinces, the campaigners for the recognition of Devanagiri as official language in courts and government offices in the United Provinces were also involved in the Congress organization.

1) Besant identified herself with Hindu nationalists and expressed her ideas as follows.
2) The Indian work is first of all the revival, strengthening and uplifting of ancient religions. This has brought with it a new self-respect, a pride in the past, a belief in the future and as an inevitable result, a great wave of patriotic life, the beginning of the rebuilding of a nation.

1. Kalpana Dutt's active participation in the revolutionary Chittagong movement led to her arrest. Tried along with Surya Sen, Kalpana was sentenced to transportation for life.
2. The charge was "waging war against the King Emperor". As all their activities started with the raid on the Armoury, the trial came to be known as the Chittagong Armoury Raid Trial.

1) A Sikh teenager who was raised at Khalsa Orphanage named Udham Singh saw the happening in his own eyes.
2) To avenge the killings of Jallianwalla Bagh, on 30 March 1940, he assassinated Michael O'Dwyer in Caxton Hall of London. Udham Singh was hanged at Pentonville jail, London

Home Rule Movement declined after Besant accepted the proposed Montagu- Chelmsford Reforms and Tilak went to Britain in September 1918 to pursue the libel case that he had filed against Valentine Chirol, the author of Indian Unrest.

1) In 1906, V.O.C registered a joint stock company called The Swadeshi Steam Navigation Company (SSNC) with a capital of Rs 10 Lakh, divided into 40,000 shares of Rs. 25 each.
2) Shares were open only to Indians, Ceylonese and other Asian nationals. V.O.C purchased two steamships, S.S. Gallia and S.S. Lawoe.