The Korean War (1950-53).
(i) Korea, ruled by Japan since 1910, was divided by the 38th parallel into two zones 1945.
(ii) The northern zone, with a third of the population and most of the industry, was occupied by the USSR.
(iii) The southern zone with two-thirds of the population and most of the farming area; was controlled by the United States.
(iv) In the elections held under the supervision of UNO, in South Korea Syngman Rhee became president. In North Korea, USSR set up the People's Democratic Republic, Communist government, headed by Kim II Sung.
(v) Soon after, the Russians and Americans withdrew their forces.
(vi) The South Korean president openly proclaimed his ambition to unite the whole country by force.
(vii) Open warfare began on 25 June 1950 when North Korea invaded South Korea.

President Wilson's peace proposals included:
1. Open covenants openly arrived at.
2. Freedom of the seas.
3. Removal of economic barriers between nations.
4. Reduction of armaments.
5. Impartial settlement of colonial claims, with consideration for the interests of the peoples involved,
6. Russia should be allowed to operate whatever government it wanted and that government should be accepted, supported and welcomed.
7. Restoration of the independence of Belgium.
8. Restoration of Alsace and Lorraine to France.
9. readjustment of Italian frontiers on lines of nationality.
10. National Self-Determination.
11. Restoration of Romania, Serbia and Montenegro, with outlet to sea for Serbia.
12. Autonomous development for the peoples of Turkey, with the Straits from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean "permanently opened".
13. An independent Poland, inhabited by indisputably Polish populations and with access to the sea.
14. A league of Nations.

(i) During the First World War Germany's most fearsome weapon was the submarine or U-Boat.
(ii) The Germans adopted a strategy to starve Britain by sinking every ship it could. 880,000 tons of shipping went to the bottom of the seas in one month alone.
(iii) The Q-ships were Britain's answer to the Germany.
(iv) The British sent more than 200 steamers, travelers, and cargo vessels in a disguised form of a cargo ship and pressed into action against the U-boat menace.
(v) The idea was to lure the U-boats into attacking these decoy ships which would unleash its hidden armed force and weaponry.

Partition of Africa:
(i) In 1876 King Leopold II of Belgium took the lead in exploring and seizing through his International African Association, a great rubber producing region, what is now known as Belgian Congo.
(ii) In 1881 a French expedition occupied Tunis, to the great displeasure of the Italians who had been longing to annex it.
(iii) In 1891 they occupied the Ivory Coast, Dahomey in 1892 and Madagascar in 1895. Great Britain, apart from conquering Natal and the Transvaal in south Africa, annexed many parts of Africa.
(iv) In 1883 Great Britain succeeded in securing control over Egypt.
(v) The Gold Coast colonies, Uganda, Zanzibar, part of East Africa, and Rhodesia became part of the British Empire.
(vi) Between 1884 and 1890 Germany acquired Togoland, the Cameroons, German South-West Africa and German East Africa,
(vii) The scramble for territory among the great European powers resulted in the completion of partition of "The Dark Continent of Africa" by the end of the century.
(viii) Only countries such as Liberia, Morocco and Abyssinia remained un-annexed,

Austro-Prussian War of 1866
1. By his diplomacy Bismarck had ensured the neutrality of Russia and France.
2. He also got the support of Piedmont-Sardinia which wanted to drive Austria out of Venetia.
3. Thus ensuring that Austria would not receive support from any major power, he forced Austria to attack Prussia. The Austro-Prussian war is also known as the Seven Weeks' War.
4. Prussia defeated Austria at the Battle of Sadowa or Konnniggratz in Bohemia.
5. While the Prussian army wanted to march into Austria and capture Vienna, Bismarck opposed it.
6. The war was brought to an end by the Treaty of Prague.
7. Austria withdrew from the German confederation. The northern states were formed into a north German Confederation under Prussia.
8. Though defeated, Italy was rewarded with Venetia for its support to Prussia. The North German Confederation consisted of 22 states north of river Maine.
9. A new constitution came into effect on 1 July 1867. Bismarck followed a friendly policy towards the southern states in an attempt to win them over.

1. The Industrial Revolution ended the domestic system of industry and necessitated the workmen to live near the factories.
2. Long rows of tenement houses were built for their accommodation.
3. Wages were abominably low.
4. Hours of labour were as hlgh as fifteen or even eighteen a day.
5. Womer' and children were employed in large numbers.
6. The factories were owned by a small class of capitalists, whose main object was unbridled profit.
7. The working classes were initially unorganised and therefore wholly at the mercy of their employers.

War against Austria and Prussia:
1. The king agreed to the constitutional monarchy on one hand, on the other he was secretly appealing for help from Austria and Prussia.
2. The neighbouring kingdoms were watching the developments in France with concern.
3. They feared that the rise of common people might bring to an end the rule of monarchs and so they sent their troops to France to contain the revolution.
4. Meanwhile the National Assembly declared war against Austria and Prussia.
5. On hearing this, people from various parts of France united to fight the foreign forces.
6. A group of people from the place of Marseilles proceeded to Paris by singing the Marseillaise song.

Significance of American Revolution:
1. The American Revolution opened up many avenues in the history of the world.
2. The concepts of democracy and republic became widespread.
3. The political and social changes were on the lines of democracy and equality.
4. USA became a land of opportunities and freedom for all settlers.
5. Education gained prominence.
6. The principle of federalism became widespread.
7. The American Revolution was a setback for colonialism. The demand of the colonies for independence against their colonial masters became widespread in many parts of the world.
8. It paved the way for a free society where every individual was given the freedom of speech, freedom of religion and equal opportunities.

(1) Divisions in the European nations:
The schism in the church led to the division of religious practices in the same country. North Germany became Lutheran while South Germany remained Catholic. England became Protestant while Scotland and the people of Ireland became devout Catholics.
(2) Literacy:
The printing press encouraged the printing of various religious teaching of reformation movement and also reading ofthe same by common people were encouraged to read and understand the Bible. The use of vernacular language in preaching and the translation of Bible in regional languages opened a new avenue to reach ordinary people.
(3) Status of Women:
Due to the opposition of celibacy in churches, the pastors of the Protestant churches became married men. This strengthened the role of women in household and in churches. Women were encouraged to read the Bible and bring up the children in Protestant methods. This led to the increase in literacy level of women.
(4) Power of Kings:
The reformation movement gave more power to some rulers such as Henry VIII, who became the head of both the state and the Church.
(5) Race for colonies:
Both the Protestants and the Catholics wanted to convert people from other parts of the world to their own religious beliefs. The Spanish conquest in South America was followed by Jesuit priests (a new sect of Roman Catholics created to spread Catholicism). The Puritans, Catholics and Anglicansset up their churches in the thirteen British colonies of North-America.
(6) Spread of Christianity:
The availability of gold and silver from the colonies made the European nations to send explorers in the guise of missionaries to various parts of the world. ''First the missionary, then the gun boat, then the land grabbing" that was the sequence of events people of the succeeding generation had to contend with.

The causes of the beginning of the Revolution were
(a) the capture of Mediterranean trade by the Italian cities;
(b) the development of a flourishing trade between Italian cities and the merchants of Hanseatic League (a merchant guild) in northern Europe;
(c) introduction of coins such as the Duca of Venice and the florin of Florence;
(d) the accumulation of surplus earned out of trading, shipping and mining enterprises;
(e) the demand for war materials and the encouragement given by the new monarchs to the development of commerce in order to create more taxable wealth.

A series of Industrial Policy statements were adopted to promote these objectives. policy statement was made in 1948. It classified industries into four categories:
(i) Strategic industries which would be state monopolies (atomic energy, railways, arms and ammunition);
(ii) 18 industries of national importance under government control (heavy machinery, heavy chemicals, defense equipment, etc..);
(iii) Industries in both the public and private sectors;
(iv) Industries in the private sector the most definitive policy statement was the industrial Policy Resolution of 1956 which classified industries into three categories;
(i) Schedule A industries were under the monopoly of the state;
(ii) Schedule B industries, the state could start new units but the private sector could also set up or expand their units;
(iii) Schedule C were the remaining industries.
1. The Industrial Development and Regulation Act of 1951 was an important instrument for controlling the private sector.
2. This Act stipulated that no new industrial units could be set up, nor the capacity of existing units expanded without a licence or permit from the government.
3. The Policy Statement of 1973 encouraged large industrial houses to start operations in rural and backward areas to reduce regional imbalances in development.
4. The Policy Statement of 1977 was framed by the short- lived Janata government which was aimed at promoting rural, village and small scale industries.
5. The Policy Statement of 1980 was announced by the congress government which also aimed at promoting balanced growth.
6. Otherwise all these statements continued the ideology of a strong public sector owned by the state and control over the private sector and especially the large business house.

A la-point "declaration on promotion of world peace and cooperation", incorporating the principles of the United Nations Charter was adopted unanimously:
1. Respect for fundamental human rights and for the purposes and principles of the charter of the United Nations.
2. Respect for the sovereignty and territorial integrity of all nations.
3. Recognition of the equality of all races and of the equality of all nations large and small.
4. Abstention from intervention or interference in the internal affairs of another country.
5. Respect for the right of each nation to defend itself, singly or collectively, in conformity with the charter of the United Nations.
6. (a) Abstention from the use of arrangements of collective defence to serve any particular interests of the big powers.
(b) Abstention by any country from exerting pressures on other countries.
7. Refraining from acts or threats of aggression or the use of force against the territorial integrity or political independence of any country.
8. Settlement of all international disputes by peaceful means, such as negotiation, conciliation, arbitration or judicial settlement as well as other peaceful means of the parties own choice, in conformity with the charter of the United Nations.
9. Promotion of mutual interests and cooperation.
10. Respect for justice and international obligations.

1) The arrogance displayed by the colonial government and its refusal to find a meeting point between the promise of dominion status at some future date and the Congress demand for the promise of independence after cessation of the war as a pre-condition to support war efforts was drawn from another development.
2) That was the demand for a separate nation for Muslims.
3) Though the genesis of a separate unit or units consisting of Muslim majority regions in the Eastern and North-Western India was in the making since the 1930s, the resolution on March 23, 1940, at Lahore was distinct.
4) There is ample evidence that the Muslim League and its associates were given the necessary encouragement to go for such a demand by the colonial administrators.
5) The resolution, then, gave the colonial rulers a certain sense of courage to refuse negotiating with the Indian National Congress even while they sought cooperation in the war efforts.
6) In many ways the Congress at the time was weaker in the organizational sense.
7) Moreover, its leaders were committed to the idea that the British war efforts called for support given the character of the Axis powers - Germany, Italy, and Japan - being fascist and thus a danger for democracy.
8) Bose was the only leader who sought non-cooperation with the allied forces and active cooperation with the Axis powers.
9) All these were the important markers of 1940. Things however changed soon with the Japanese advance in Southeast Asia and the collapse of the British army.
10) It led to a sense of urgency among the colonial rulers to ensure cooperation for the war efforts in India even while Ilot committing to freedom.
11) Winston Churchill, now heading the war cabinet, dispatched Sir Stafford Cripps to talk with the Congress.

1) In the late 1920s a young woman, Kalpana Dutt. (known as Kalpana Joshi after her marriage to the communist leader P.C. Joshi), fired the patriotic imagination of young people by her daring raid of the Chittagong armoury.
2) To understand the heroism of Kalpana Dutt, you should understand the revolutionary strand of nationalism that attracted women like her to these ideals. You have already learnt that there existed many revolutionary groups in British India.
3) The character of these organisations gradually changed from being ones that practiced individual annihilation to organising collective actions aimed at larger changes in the system.
Women in Action
1) While Bhagat Singh represented young men who dedicated their lives to the freedom of the country, Kalpana Dutt represented the young women who defied the existing patriarchal set up and took to arms for the liberation of their motherland. Not only did they act as 'messengers (as elsewhere) but they also participated in direct actions, fought along with men, carrying guns.
2) Kalpana Dutt's active participation in the revolutionary Chittagong movement led to her arrest. Tried along with Surya Sen, Kalpana was sentenced to transportation for life.
3) The charge was: "Waging war against the King Emperor". As all their activities started with the raid on the Armoury, the trial came to be known as the Chittagong Armoury Raid Trial.

Constitutional
Opportunity for participation in the government was one of the major demands of the Indian National Congress. It demanded Indian representation in the government.
Economic
High land revenue was one of the major factors that contributed to the oppression of the peasents. It demanded reduction in the land revenue and protection of peasants against exploitation of the zamindars. The Congress also advocated the imposition of heavy tax on the-imported goods for the benefit of swadeshi goods.
Administrative
Higher officials who had responsibility-of administration in India were selected through civil services examinations conducted in Britain. This meant that educated Indians who could not-afford to go to London had no opportunity to get high administrative jobs. Therefore, Indianisation of services through simultaneous Indian Civil Services Examinations in England and India was a major demand of the Congress.
Judicial
Because of the partial treatment against the Indian political activists by English judges it demanded the complete separation of the Executive and the Judiciary.