1. Haiti, earlier known as Saint-Domingue was the richest French colony in the Caribbean Sea.
2. The storming of the Bastille was followed by armed defiance of the royal governor.
3. Vincent Oge, who had lobbied with the Parisian assembly for colonial reforms.
4. He was led to revolt at the end of 1790. But the rebellion was suppressed and he was hanged.
5. In the late 1790s, Toussaint L Ouverture, gained control of several areas.
6. Napoleon sent a fleet of 12,000 troops to seize control from Toussaint L Ouverture s forces.
7. Napoleons forces were defeated by the Dessalines, even though Toussaint was killed.
8. Saint Domingue became the independent black state of Haiti in 1804.

1. The National Assembly abolished feudalism in the country.
2. In 1789 the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen was adopted.
3. In 1791, the National Assembly drafted the constitution by which the powers of the king were limited.
4. People started forming political clubs to discuss the problems they faced.
5. One such club which attained popularity was the Jacobin Club in Paris.
6. On 2 September 1792, the mob descended on the prisons and summarily executed those they believed to be royalists.
7. In 1792 the new Convention abolished monarchy and declared France a republic.
8. King Louis XVI was brought before the People s tribunal and executed by guillotine on 21 January 1793.
9. As the government and the base of society were radicalised, so the Jacobian group leader Robasesphere also hanged.

1. Germany handed over Alsace and Lorraine to France.
2. The coal mines in the Saar Valley were to be ceded to France.
3. All German colonies became mandated territories under the League of Nations.
4. Germany was disarmed and was forced to give up practically all of its submarines. and battleships.
5. Germany was forbidden to have any airplanes, either military or naval.
6. Its army was to be limited to 100,000.
7. The union of Austria and Germany was forbidden.
8. Germany was to acknowledge and respect the Independence of Austria.
9. Germany and its allies were held responsible for the loss and damage suffered during the war.

1. Marx and Engels held the firm view that the existence of the bourgeoisie was as necessary.
2. Influenced by the ideas of Karl Marx, Lenin believed that the way for freedom was through mass action.
3. The failure of the Tsar's regime, the defeat by Japan, the Sunday massacre land the defeat of the First World War, led to the revolution in Russia.
4. The Menshevik government was established in Russia through the revolution. Lenin schemed to overthrow it.
5. His slogan of All power to the Soviets soon won over the workers leaders.
6. The slogan' Bread, peace and land' attracted the victims of the war.
7. Devastated by war time shortages, the people were attracted by the slogan of Bread, Peace and Land.
8. Lenin persuaded the Bolshevik Central Committee to decide on an immediate revolution.
9. Accordingly, key government buildings, including the Winter Palace and the Prime Ministers headquarters, were seized.

1. Boris Yeltsin Joining the Communist Party in 1961, Later he became a fulltime worker in the party.
2. He emerged as a popular figure and began to occupy in key positions in the Party.
3. He chose to eliminate corruption in the Moscow party organisation.
4. In 1986 Yeltsin was elevated to the Politburo.
5. Soon he was made the mayor of Moscow.
6. Yeltsin antagonised Gorbachev when he began criticising the slow pace of reform at party meetings.
7. He advocated democratic governance and economic reforms.
8. He succeeded in winning a seat in the USSR Congress of People s Deputies.
9. The Soviet parliament elected him president of the Russian republic against Gorbachev's wishes.
10. He became the first popularly elected leader in 1991, after the collapse of Soviet Union.

1. As the United Nations voted to partition Palestine into a Jewish state And an Arab state in November 1947.
2. So conflict broke out almost immediately between Jews and Arabs in Palestine.
3. On the eve of the British forces withdrawal, Israel declared independence. 
4. From the start, when Israel was created, there was little involvement of the UN in making political decisions.
5. By 1966 the U.S. providing began to Israel with advanced planes and missiles.
6. In April 1967 there were artillery exchanges between Israel and Syria.
7. The U.S. Sixth Fleet remained off the Syrian coast.
8. Egypt closed the Straits of Taran to Israeli shipping. In early June Israel attacked Egypt.

(i) Major parts of Spain like Aragon and Castile were under the control of the Moors.
(ii) Together King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella worked hard to drive away the Moors and unite Spain.
(iii) The king and queen took power in their hands and controlled the nobles by eliminating them from the royal councils.
(iv) This made Spain to emerge as a nation-state. England emerged as nation-states.
(v) There was conflict between two royal houses in England namely the House of york and House of Lancaster for the throne.
(vi) In this civil war, Henry Tudor emerged victorious and he started a new line of monarchy in England.
(vii) He entered into matrimonial alliance with Elizabeth of York family. This made England to emerge as a nation-state. France emerged as nation-states.
(viii) Burgundy and western parts of France was for long in English possession.
(ix) At the end of the hundred years war, Louis XI Burgundy returned, after he had driven the English out of the country.
(x) Finally brought under control and Burgundy became part of France in about 1483. This made France to emerge as a nation-state.

(i) Even in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries Florence had produced Dante and Petrarch, the two great poets of the Italian language.
(ii) Dante s Divine Comedy is a summation of medieval culture.
(iii) Its dominant theme is the salvation of mankind through reason and divine grace.
(iv) It abounds with many other themes such as human love, love of country, interest in natural phenomena.
(v) Petrarch produced works both in Latin and Italian.
(vi) An early humanist, he is considered to be the father of Italian Renaissance literature.
(vii) Boccaccio, also a Florentine, produced Decameron, a collection of 100 stories.
(viii) Niccolo Machiavellis The Prince became famous because of its relevance as a political guide for the rulers.
(ix) In his view, the supreme obligation of the ruler was to maintain the power and safety of the country over which he ruled.

1. Bismarck, transformed into a powerful state with the objective of uniting the Germanic states under its leadership.
2. He adopted a "blood and iron policy to achieve the unification".
3. He realised that the unification of Germany was not possible without an armed conflict with Austria and France.
4. He sparked conflict with Austria and France through diplomatic moves.
5. He also got the support of Piedmont-Sardinia which wanted to drive Austria out of Venetia.
6. With the victory of the Austrian-Prussian War, he formed the Northern German Federation under the leadership of Prussia.
7. Bismarck his attention to create a rift between Prussia and France to unite the southern German states.
8. At the end of the Franck-Prussian War, Germany combined the unification of Northern and southern Germany.

1. The Napoleonic rule, for the first time, provided Italy with a sense of unity through uniform administration.
2. The several secret societies such as the like the Corporanari, who were insisting on free and patriotic ideas, became more spread.
3. Mazzini, Cavour, and Garibaldi were the three central figures of the unification of ltaly.
4. Parma, Modena and Tuscany were merged with the Kingdom of Piedmont- Sardinia through plebiscites.
5. Plebiscites held in Sicily, Naples and Papal States led to their merger with Piedmont-Sardinia.
6. At the end of the war with Austria, Italy acquired Lombardy under the Zurich pact.
7. During the Austro-Prussian War in 1866, Italy had allied itself with Prussia and was rewarded with Venetia.
8. In 1871, Italy took advantage of the Franco-Prussian War to annex Rome as the French forces withdrew.

1. Etienne-Gabriel Morally, the Utopian thinker, proposed a communistic organisation of society.
2. The term "Utopian Socialism" was first used by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels.
3. Utopian Socialists recommended the establishment of model communities.
4. Saint-Simon suggested that scientists take the place of priests in the social order.
5. Fourier believed that social conditions were the primary cause of human misery.
6. Robert Owen had developed a theory of Utopian Socialism based on social equality and cooperation.
7. Proudhon wanted to replace nation-state with federations of autonomous communes.
8. Louis Blanc argued that socialism cannot be achieved without state power.

1. In 1918 a Society for the Study of Marxism was formed in Peking University.
2. Among the students who attended was a young assistant librarian by the name of Mao Tse-tung.
3. In China, Kuomintang government became notorious for its corruption and gangsterism.
4. Mao knew that the Kuomintang grip on the towns was too strong. So concentrated his energies on organizing the peasantry.
5. He retreated into the wild mountains on the border between the provinces of Kiangsi and Hunan.
6. Later, Mao wanted to move out of Human for safer territory.
7. Therefore, the Communist anny set out on what came to be known as the Long March in 1934.
8. As a result of the Long Maffih, Mao became the ruler of the people in china.

1. According to the Treaty of Versailles, in 1935, Hitler held a general referendum in the SAR area and annexed it with Germany.
2. In 1936 Hitler flouted the Treaty of Versailles by sending troops to occupy Rhineland.
3. The Nazi state was established in Austria by the pressure of Hitler.
4. Then the German forces entered Vienna and began to establish control over the country.
5. Before the referendum was held in the Sudetenland, Hitler occupied it with his army.
6. In the Munich conference, the Prime ministers of Britain, France, Germany and Italy issued the approval.
7. Using the conflict in Czechoslovakia, Hitler sent German forces to occupy the conflict zone.
8. Hitler, who was aiming to occupy the whole of Europe, On September 1, 1939, the attack on Poland was held.
9. The reason for the Second World War was the rejection of Britains ultimatum to leave Germany in Poland.

The terms imposed upon Germany at the end of First World War were harsh.
1. Stripped off its colonies, the size of the German anyway drastically reduced.
2. Germany was forced to cede Alsace and Lorraine to France.
3. Germany agree to the temporary occupation by French troops of the Saar valley.
4. Gennanywas also compelled to hand over to Poland large parts of the industrial area of Silesia.
5. Further Germany was to pay an impossible sum in reparation.
6. Austria was not allowed to unite with Germany.
7. Such bad Features later led to the political success of the Nazi Party in Germany.

1) As pointed out earlier, thanks to the campaigns conducted by Bal Gangadhar Tilak Bipin Chandra Pal and Lala Lajpat Rai, often referred to as the Lal-Bal-Pal triumvirate, Maharashtra, Bengal, Punjab, emerged as the epicentres of militant nationalism during the Swadeshi phase.
2) Aurobindo Ghose was another influential figure in the militant leadership. The nationalism of this form was more assertive compared to the early Indian nationalism.
3) Both the groups, moderate and militant, were well aware of the evils or the wrong doings of the British rule.
4) The moderates, however, worked under the belief that the British rule in India could be reformed by convincing the rulers through representation and petitioning.
5) The militant nationalist, on the other hand, was of the opinion that the colonial rulers would never be amenable to reason, as they would not like to give up the advantages of an empire.
6) Militant nationalism also changed the nature of political pressure from the earlier force of public opinion of educated Indians to the protesting masses.
7) Despite these changes, the militant nationalism phase retained a continuity from the moderate phase.
8) This continuity was evident in the inability to transcend the peaceful method of struggle and for the most parts militant nationalism remained tied to the idea of non-violence. However, they appealed to the patriotic sentiments of the people using the religious symbols.
Swaraj or Political Independence
1) One of the common goals of the militant leaders was to achieve Swaraj or Self Rule. However, the leaders differed on the meaning of Swaraj.
2) For Tilak, Swaraj was restricted to the Indian control over the administration or rule by the natives, but not total severance of relation with Britain.
3) In Bipin Chandra Pal's view, Swaraj was the attainment of complete freedom from any foreign rule.

The major objectives and demands of INC were
Constitutional
Opportunity for participation in the government was one of the major demands of the Indian National Congress. It demanded Indian representation in the government.
Economic
High land revenue was one of the major factors that contributed to the oppression of the peasants. It demanded reduction in the land revenue and protection of peasants against exploitation of the zamindars. The Congress also advocated the imposition of heavy tax on the imported goods for the benefit of swadeshi goods.
Administrative
Higher officials who had responsibility of administration in India were selected through civil services examinations conducted in Britain. This meant that educated Indians who could not afford to go to London had no opportunity to get high administrative jobs. Therefore, Indianisation of services through simultaneous Indian Civil Services Examinations in England and India was a major demand of the Congress.
Judicial
Because of the partial treatment against the Indian political activists by English judges it demanded the complete separation of the Executive and the Judiciary.
Contributions of Early Nationalists (1885-1915)
1) The early nationalists in the INC came from the elite sections of the society. Lawyers, college and university teachers, doctors, journalists and such others represented the Congress. However, they came from different regions of the country and this made INC a truly a national political organisation.
2) These leaders of the INC adopted the constitutional methods of presenting petitions, prayers and memorandums and thereby earned the moniker of "Moderates".
3) It was also the time some sort of an understanding about colonialism was evolving in India There was no ready-made anti-colonial understanding available for reference in the late nineteenth century when the INC was formed.
4) It was the early nationalists who helped the formulation of the idea of we as a nation. The were developing the indigenous anti-colonial ideology and a strategy on their own which helped future mass leaders like M. K Gandhi.
5) From the late 1890s there were growing differences within the INC Leaders like Bipin Chandra Pal, Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Lala Lajpat Rai were advocating radical appro ache instead of merely writing petitions, prayers and memorandums.
6) These advocates of radical methods came to be called the "extremists" as against those who were identified as moderates. Their objective became clear in 1897 when Tilak raised the clarion call "Swaraj is my birth right and I shall have it".
7) Tilak and his militant followers were now requesting Swaraj -instead of economic or administrative reforms that the moderates were requesting through their petitions and prayers.
8) Though they criticised each other, it would be wrong to place them in the opposing poles. Both moderates and militants, with their own methods, were significant elements of the larger Indian nationalist movement.
9) In fact, they contributed towards the making of the swadeshi movement. The partition of Bengal in 1905, by the colonial government, which you will be studying in the next lesson, was vehemently opposed by the Indians.
10) The swadeshi movement of 1905, directly opposed the British rule and encouraged the ideas of swadeshi enterprise, national education, self-help and use of Indian languages.
11) The method of mass mobilisation and boycott of British goods and institutions suggested by the radicals was also accepted by the Moderates.

1) Indian national movement dates its birth from the 1857 uprising. The outrages committed by the British army after putting down the revolt remained "un-avenged".
2) Even the court-martial law and formalities were not observed Officers who sat on the court martial swore that they would hang their prisoners, guilty or innocent and, if any dared to raise his voice against such indiscriminate vengeance, he was silenced by his angry colleagues.
3) Persons condemned to death after the mockery of a trial were often tortured by soldiers before their execution, while the officers looked on approvingly.
4) It is worth recalling what Elphinstone, Governor of Bombay Presidency, wrote to Sir John Lawrence, future Viceroy of India (1864) about the British siege of Delhi during June- September, 1857'. A wholesale vengeance is being taken without distinction of friend or foe. As regards the looting, we have indeed surpassed Nadirshah.'
Racial Discrimination
1) The English followed a policy of racial discrimination.
2) The systematic exclusion of the Indians from higher official positions came to be looked upon as an anti-Indian policy measure and the resultant discontent of the Indian upper classes led the Indians to revolt against the British rule.
3) When civil service examinations were introduced the age limit was fixed at twenty one. When Indians were making it, with a view to debarring the Indians from entering the civil services, the age limit was reduced to nineteen.
4) Similarly, despite requests from Indian educated middle class to hold the civil service examinations simultaneously in India, the Imperial government refused to concede the request.

1) The colonial government aided the spread of modem education in India for a different reason than educating and empowering the Indians.
2) To administer a large colony like India, the British needed a large number of personnel to work for them. It was impossible for the British to import the educated lot, needed in such large numbers, from Britain.
3) With this aim, the English Education Act was passed by the Council of India in 1835. T.B. Macaulay drafted this system of education introduced in India
4) Consequently, the colonial administration started schools, colleges and universities, imparting English and modem education, in India
5) Universities were established in Bombay, Madras and Calcutta in 1857.
6) The colonial government expected this section of educated Indians to be loyal to the British and act as the pillars of the British Raj.
7) The British created an educated Indian middle class for their own ends but sneered at it as the Babu class.
8) That every class, however, became the progressive intelligentsia of India and played a leading role in mobilising the people for the liberation of the country.
9) The economic and administrative transformation on the one side and the growth of Western education on the other gave the space for the growth of new social classes.
10)  From within these social classes, a modem Indian intelligentsia emerged
11) The "neo-social classes" created by the British Raj, which included the Indian trading and business communities, landlords, money lenders, English-educated Indians employed in imperial subordinate services, lawyers and doctors, initially adopted a positive approach towards the colonial administration.
12)  However, soon they realised that their interests would be better served only in independent India
13)  People of the said social classes began to play a prominent role in promoting patriotism amongst the people.
14) The consciousness of these classes found articulation in a number of associations prior to the founding of the Indian National Congress at the national level.

1) India has made great strides in developing institutions of scientific research and technology.
2) The only science research institute in India before Independence was the Indian Institute of Science (HSc) established in 1909 in Bangalore with funding from J.R.D. Tata and the Maharaja of Mysore.
3) The Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TlFR) was set up in 1945 on the initiative of Homi J. Bhabha, with some funding from the Tatas. It was intended to promote research in mathematics and pure sciences.
4) The National Chemical Laboratory, Pune and the National Physics Laboratory, New Delhi were the first institutes set up in India around the time of Independence.
5) Since then there has been a steady increase in the number of institutes doing research in pure sciences, ranging from astrophysics, geology/geo-physics, cellular and molecular biology, mathematical sciences and so on.
6)  The Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) is the umbrella organization under which most of the scientific research institutions function. The CSIR also advances research in applied fields like machinery, drugs, planes etc.
7) The Atomic Energy Commission is the nodal agency for the development of nuclear science which is strategically important, focusing both on nuclear power generation and nuclear weapons. The Atomic Energy Commission also funds several institutes of pure science research.
8) Agriculture is another area where there has been a significant expansion of research and development. The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) is the coordinating agency for the research done not only in basic agriculture, but also associated activities like fishery, forests, dairy, plant genetics, bio-technology, varieties of crops like rice, potato, tubers, fruits and pest control, to name only a few of the activities covered by the Institute.
9) Agricultural universities are also actively engaged in teaching and research on agricultural practices. There are 67 Agricultural Universities in India, and 3 in Tamil Nadu.
10) Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs) were set up as centres of excellence in different fields of engineering.
11) The first lIT was located in Kharagpur, followed by Delhi, Bomb' y, Kanpur and Madras (Chennai).
12) There are now 21 IITs in the country, in addition to 30 NITs (National Institutes of Technology) and about 10 IIITs (Indian Institutes of Information Technology).
13) There are about 3500 engineering colleges in the country, but government engineering colleges only number around 100.
14) There has been an explosion of private engineering colleges, particularly in Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra.
15) Unfortunately, the colleges vary significantly in the quality of education that they provide, and there are many graduates with engineering degrees who are not able to get jobs because they do not meet the standards and skill sets required by corporate employers.
16) In spite of advances, the general perception is that science research in India still has a long way to go to catch up with the more developed countries and China.
17) The research output in theoretical fields is rather disappointing and scanty in spite of the number of research institutions in the country.

Under the Constitution of India, agriculture was a 'state subject', that is, each state had to pass laws relating to land reforms individually.
Thus, while the basic form of land reforms was common among all the states, there was no uniformity in the specific terms of land reform legislation among the states.
Abolition of Zamindari was part of the manifesto of the Indian National Congress Party even before Independence.
1) The government passed two amendments to the Constitution for abolition of zamindari system,
2) The First Amendment in 1951 and the Fourth Amendment in 1955, which removed the 'right to property' from the fundamental rights guaranteed under the Constitution and preempted the right of zamindars to question the expropriation of their land or the value of the compensation.
3) Finally, zamindari abolition was completed by 1956, and was possibly the most successful of the land reforms. About 30 lakh tenants and sharecroppers gained ownership of 62 lakh hectares of land. The total compensation actually paid to the zamindars amounted to Rs.16,420 lakhs
4) In sum, however, the reform only achieved a very small part of the original objective.
5) Many zamindars were able to evict their tenants and take over their land claiming that this land was under their 'personal cultivation'.
6) Thus, while the institution of zamindari was dismantled, many landowners continued in possession of vast tracts of land.
(b) Tenancy reform - Most large landowners in India tended to belong to the upper castes - Brahmin and non-Brahmin.
1) It was common for them to lease out the land to tenants. Usually these tenancy arrangements continued for long periods of time.
2) The rents received by the landowners generally amounted to about 50% or more of the produce from the land, which was very high.
3) Tenancy was a customary practice and agreements were rarely recorded.
4) Tenancy reform legislation was passed in the states regulating the rent at one-fourth to one third of the produce. But this could never be implemented successfully. The agricultural sector had a surplus of labour whereas land was a resource in short supply.
5) Price controls did not work in a situation when the demand exceeded the supply. All that happened was that rent rates were pushed under the table without any official record.
6) Tenancy agreements were made orally, and were recorded. The tenant thus always had to live with the uncertainty that their land could be resumed by the landlord any time.
7) When tenancy reform laws were announced many landowners claimed to have taken back their land for 'personal cultivation' and that tenants were only being employed as labour to work the land.
8) Tenancy reform was bound to be ineffectual in the absence of a comprehensive and enforceable land ceiling programme.
(c) Land Ceiling:
1) Laws were passed after the 1950s to enforce Land ceiling it.
2) Until 1972, there was a ceiling on the extent of land that a 'landholder' could own.
3)  After 1972, the unit was changed to a 'family'. This meant that the landowners could claim that each member of the family owned a part of the land which would be much less than the prescribed limit under the ceiling.
4) Deciding the extent of land under land ceiling was a complex exercise, since land was not of uniform quality.
5) Distinctions had to be made between irrigated and unirrigated dry land, single crop and double crop producing land.
6)  As all these issues were being debated in the policy forums, the landowners had plenty of time to manipulate the land records and create fictitious and fraudulent partition ot the land among relatives or trusts.
7) Further, many categories of land were not subject to ceilings. These included orchards, horticultural land, grazing land, land belonging to religious and charitable trusts, and sugarcane plantations.
8) These exemptions were also used to evade the land ceiling acts.
9) But the end results were disappointing, since the land thus surrendered was usually. unproductive land.

1) An important aspect of the making of independent India was the reorganisation of states on linguistic basis. The colonial rulers had rendered the sub-continent into administrative units, dividing the land by way of Presidencies or Provinces without taking into account the language and its impact on culture on a region.
2) Independence and the idea of a constitutional democracy meant that the people were sovereign and that India was a multi-cultural nation where federal principles were to be adopted in a holistic sense and not just as an administrative strategy,
3) The linguistic reorganization of states was raised and argued out in Constituent Assembly • between 1947 and 1949. The assembly however decided to hold it in abeyance for a while on the grounds that the task was huge and could create problems in the aftermath of the partition and the accompanying violence.
4) After the Constitution came into force it began to be implemented in stages, beginning with the formation of a composite Andhra Pradesh in 1956. It culminated in the trifurcation of Punjab to constitute a Punjabi-speaking state of Punjab and carving out Haryana and Himachal Pradesh from the existing state of Punjab in 1966.
5) The idea of linguistic reorganisation of states was integral to the national movement, at least since 1920. The Indian National Congress, at its Nagpur session (1920), recorded that the national identity will have to be necessarily achieved through linguistic identity; and resolved to set up the Provincial Congress Committees on a linguistic basis.
6) It took concrete expression in the Nehru Committee Report of 1928. Section 86 of the Nehru Report read: "The redistribution of provinces should take place on a linguistic basis on the demand of the majority of the population of the area concerned, subject to financial and administrative considerations."
7) This idea was expressed, in categorical terms, in the manifesto of the Indian National Congress for the elections to the Central and Provincial Legislative Assemblies in 1945, The manifesto made a clear reference to the reorganisation of the provinces: " ... it (the Congress) has also stood for the freedom of each group and territorial area within the nation to develop its own life and culture within the larger framework, and it has stated that for this purpose such territorial areas or provinces should be constituted as far as possible, on a linguistic and cultural basis ... "
8) On August 31, 1946, only a month after the elections to the Constituent Assembly, Pattabhi Sitaramayya raised the demand for an Andhra Province: "The whole problem" he wrote, "must be taken up as the first and foremost problem to be solved by the Constituent Assembly".
9) He also presided over a conference, on December 8, 1946, that passed a resolution demanding that the Constituent Assembly accept the principle for linguistic reorganisation of States. The Government of India in a communique stated that Andhra could be mentioned as a separate unit in the new Constitution as was done in case of the Sind and Orissa under the Government of India act, 1935.
10) The Drafting Committee of the Constituent Assembly, however, found such a mention of ~dhra was not possible until the geographical schedule of the province was outlined. Hence, on June 17, 1948, Chairman Rajendra Prasad set up a 3-member commission, called The Linguistic Provinces Commission with a specific brief to examine and report on the formation of new provinces of Andhra, Kerala, Karnataka and Maharashtra. Its report, submitted on December 10, 1948, listed out reasons against the idea of linguistic reorganisation in the given context. It dealt with each of the four proposed States - Andhra, Karnataka, Kerala and Maharashtra - and concluded against such an idea.
11) However, the demand for linguistic reorganisation of states did not stop. The issue gained centre-stage with Pattabhi Sitaramayya's election as the Congress President at the Jaipur session. A resolution there led to the constitution of a committee with Sardar Vallabhai Patel, Pattabhi Sitaramayya and Jawaharlal Nehru (also called the JVP committee).
12) The JVP committee submitted its report on April 1, 1949. It too held that the demand for linguistic states, in the given context, as "narrow provincialism" and that it could become a "menace" to the development of the country. The JVP committee also held out that "while language is a binding force, it is also a separating one". However, it stressed that it was possible that "when conditions are more static and the state of peoples' minds calmer, the adjustment of these boundaries or the creation of new provinces can be undertaken with relative ease and with advantage to all concerned. "
13)  The committee said in conclusion that it was not the right time to embark upon the idea of linguistic reorganisation of States. In other words, the consensus was that the linguistic reorganisation of states be postponed. There was provision for re-working the boundaries between states and also for the formation of new states from parts of existing states.
14)  The makers of the Constitution did not qualify the reorganisation of the States as only on linguistic basis but left it open as long as there was agreement on such reorganisation.
15) The idea of linguistic states revived soon after the first general elections were over. Potti Sriramulu's fast demanding a separate. state of Andhra, beginning October 19, 1952 and his death thereafter on December 15, 1952.
16) This led to the constitution of the States Reorganisation Commission, with Fazli Ali as Chairperson, and K.M. Panikkar and H.N. Husrau as members. The Commission submitted its report in October 1955. The Commission recommended the following States to constitute the Indian Union: Madras, Kerala, Karnataka, Hyderabad, Andhra, Bombay, Vidharbha, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Assam, Orissa and Jammu & Kashmir. In other words, the Commission's recommendations were a compromise between administrative convenience and linguistic concerns.

1) The economic impact of the war was manifest in rising prices, shortage of food- grains and closure of war time industries causing retrenchment and employment.
2) This merged with the anti-British sentiments evident in the mass scale of the protests revolving around the INA trials.
3) B.C. Dutt, a rating in the HMIS Talwar was arrested for scribbling 'Quit India' on the panel of the ship.
4) This provoked a strike by the 1,100 ratings on the ship. The ratings resented the racist behaviour of the English commanders, the poor quality of the food and abuses that were the norm.
5) Dutt's arrest served as the trigger for the revolt on February 18, 1946.
6) The day after, the revolt was joined by the ratings in the Fort Barracks and the Castle and a large number of them went into the Bombay cities in commandeered trucks waving Congress flags and shouting anti-British slogans.
7) Soon, the workers in the textile mills, The trade unions in Bombay and Calcutta called for strike and the two cities turned into war zones. Shopkeepers downed shutters, Trains were stopped.
8) As the news of the Bombay Revolt reaches Karachi, ratings in the HMIS Hindustan and other naval establishments in Karachi went on a lightning strike on February 19.
9) The strike wave spread to almost all the naval establishments across India and at least 20,000 ratings from 78 ships and 20 shore .establishments ended up revolting in the days after February 18, 1946.
10)  There were strikes, expressing support to the ratings in the Royal Indian Air Force in Bombay and Calcutta units & the sepoys in the army cantonment station at Jabalpur too went on strike.
11) The ratings, in many places, hoisted the Congress, the Communist, and the Muslim League flags together on the ship masts during the revolt.
12) The colonial government's response was brutal repression.
13) The strikes in Bombay and Calcutta and Madras were strong expressions against British rule in India, these did not last for long and the ratings were forced to surrender soon.
14) Sardar Vallabhai Patel, then in Bombay, took the initiative to bring the revolt to an end.
15) The RIN mutiny, however, was indeed a glorious chapter in the Indian National Movement and perhaps the last act of rebellion in the long story of such acts of valour in the cause of independence.

Hindu nationalism:
1) In the Punjab communalism as a powerful movement had set in completely. In 1924 Lala Lajpat Rai openly advocated the partition of the Punjab into Hindu and Muslim Provinces.
2) The Hindu Mahasabha, represented the forces of Hindu revivalism in the political domain, raised the slogan of' Akhand Hindustan' against the Muslim League's demand of separate electorates for Muslims.
3)  Ever since its inception, the Mahasabha's role in the freedom struggle has been rather controversial. While not supportive of British rule, the Mahasabha did not offer its full support to the nationalist movement either.
4) Since the Indian National Congress had to mobilize the support of all classes and communities against foreign domination, the leaders of different communities could not press for principle of secularism firmly for the fear of losing the support of religious minded groups.
5) The Congress under the leadership of Gandhi held a number of unity conferences during this period, but to no avail.
Muslim nationalism
1) One great outcome of the efforts at unity, however, was an offer by the Conference of Muslims, which met at Delhi on March 20, 1927 to give up separate electorates if four proposals were accepted.
1. the separation of Sind from Bombay
2. Reforms for the Frontier and Baluchistan
3. Representation by population in the Punjab and Bengal and
4. Thirty-three per cent seats for the Muslims in the Central Legislature.
Indian nationalism
1) The nationalism of the Indian National Congress was personified by Mahatma Gandhi, who rejected the narrow nationalism exemplified by the Arya Samaj and the Aligargh movement and strove to evolve a political identity that transcended the different religions.
2) Notwithstanding the state-supported communalism of different hues, the Indian National Congress remained a dominant political force in India.
3) In the 1937 elections, Congress won in seven of the eleven provinces and fonned the largest party in three others. The Muslim League's performance was dismal. It succeeded in winning only 4.8 per cent of the Muslim votes.
4) The Congress had emerged as a mass secular party. Yet the Government branded it a Hindu organisation and projected the Muslim League as the real representative of the Muslims and treated it on a par with the Congress.
5) Hindu nationalism, Muslim nationalism and secular nationalism competed with each other to politicise the people in their fight against British colonialism.

(a) Hindu Revivalism
1) Some of the early nationalists believed that nationalism could be built only on a Hindu foundation.
2) As pointed out by Sarvepalli Gopal, Hindu, revivalism found its voice in politics through the Arya Samaj, founded ill 1875, with its assertion of superior qualities of Hinduism.
3) The organization of cow protection leagues in large parts of North India in the late nineteenth century gave a fillip to Hindu communalism.
4) The effort of organizations such as Arya Samaj was strengthened by the Theosophical movement led by. Annie Besant from 1891. Besant identified herself with Hindu nationalists and expressed her ideas as follows: The Indian work is first of all the revival, strengthening and uplifting of ancient religions. This has brought with it a new self-respect, a pride in the past, a belief in the future and as an inevitable result, a great wave of patriotic life, the beginning of the rebuilding of a nation.
(b) Rise of Muslims Consciousness
1) Islam on the other hand, to quote Sarvepalli Gopal again, was securing its articulation through the Aligarh movement.
2) The British, by building the Aligarh college and backing Syed Ahmed Khan, had assisted the birth of a Muslim national party and Muslim political ideology.
3) The Wahabi movement had also created cleavage in Hindu-Muslim relations. The Wahabis wanted to take Islam to its pristine purity and to end the superstition which according to them had sapped its vitality. From the Wahabis to the Khilafatists, grassroots activism played a significant role in the politicization of Muslims.
(c) Divide and Rule Policy of British
1) The object of the British was to check the development of a composite Indian identity, and to forestall attempts at consolidation and unification of Indians.
2) The last decades of the nineteenth century was marked by a number of Hindu-Muslim riots. Even in south India, there was a major riot in Salem in July-August 1882.
(d) Cow Slaughter and Communal Riots
1) Gaurakshini Sabhas (cow protection leagues) were becoming more militant and there were reports of forcible interference with the sale or slaughter of cows.
2) The riots over cow-slaughter became frequent after 1893 and 15 major riots of this type broke out in the Punjab alone between 1883 and 1891.
3) Cow protectionists in the Punjab, the activities of Gaurakshini Sabhas in the Central Provinces, the campaigners for the recognition of Devanagiri as official language in courts and government offices in the United Provinces were also involved in the Congress organization.
(e) Failure of Congress and Government to combat Communalism
1) The Indian National Congress, despite its secular and nationalist claims was unable to prevent the involvement of its members in the activities of Hindu communal organisations.
2) This was a major factor in the Muslim distrust of the Congress. Congressmen's participation in shuddhi and sangathan campaigns of the Arya Samaj further estranged Hindus and Muslims.

1) The Indian National Congress, in contrast to the violent actions of revolutionaries, mobilised the masses for non-violent struggles. The Congress under the leadership of Gandhi gave priority to the problems of peasants.
2) In the context of great agrarian distress, deepened by world-wide economic depression, the Congress mobilised the peasantry. The Congress adopted a no-rent and no-tax campaign as a part of its civil disobedience programme. Under the pressure of Great Depression, socio-economic demands were sharply articulated in its Karachi Session of the Indian National Congress.
3) The freedom struggle was taking a new shape. Peasants organised themselves into Kisan Sabhas and industrial workers were organized by the trade unions, made their presence felt in a big way in the freedom struggle. The Indian National Congress had become a mass party during the 1930s. The Congress leadership, which was now taking a left turn under Nehru's leadership, began to talk about an egalitarian society based on social and economic justice.
4) The Karachi session held in March 1931, presided over by Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel, adopted a resolution on Fundamental Rights and Duties and provided an insight into what the economic policy of an independent India. In some ways, it was the manifesto of the Indian National Congress for independent India. These rights and the social and economic programmes were derived from a firm conviction that political freedom and economic freedom were inseparable.
5) Even a cursory look at the fundamental rights solution will tell you that all the basic rights that the British denied to the Indians found a prominent place in the Resolution. The colonial government curtailed civil liberties and freedom by passing draconian acts and ordinances. Gandhian ideals and Nehru's socialist vision also found a place in the list of rights that the Indian National Congress promised to ensure in free India.