1. Provided the capital necessary for investment in industries.
2. Political stability also provided objective conditions for industrial development.
3. The availability of coal and iron deposits in large quantities.
4. The British had well established ports all across the coast which enabled easy internal and external trade. The mechanisation of industry resulted in much greater production and therefore it produced greater wealth.
5. The handicrafts and rendered tens of thousands of artisans and weavers jobless.
6. Men's were thrown out of employment by the cheap labour of women and children.
7. An important outcome of the Industrial Revolution was the creation of two new classes: an industrial bourgeoisie and a proletariat.

1. Haiti, earlier known as Saint-Domingue was the richest French colony in the Caribbean Sea.
2. The storming of the Bastille was followed by armed defiance of the royal governor.
3. Vincent Oge, who had lobbied with the Parisian assembly for colonial reforms.
4. He was led to revolt at the end of 1790. But the rebellion was suppressed and he was hanged.
5. In the late 1790s, Toussaint L Ouverture, gained control of several areas.
6. Napoleon sent a fleet of 12,000 troops to seize control from Toussaint L Ouverture s forces.
7. Napoleons forces were defeated by the Dessalines, even though Toussaint was killed.
8. Saint Domingue became the independent black state of Haiti in 1804.

Circumstances for the establishment of a fascist state in Italy:
1. The breakdown of the parliamentary government which had proved unable to cope wi the disorders following the end of the First World War.
2. The inability of the Democratic Party leaders to combine and act decisively facilitated Mussolini s triumph.
3. The dispute between the communist and their opponents led to the conditions for civil.
4. It ended with the march of the Fascists on Rome.
5. Impressed by the show of force, the King Immanuel III invited Mussolini to form a government. Circumstances for the establishment of a fascist state in Germany:
6. Republican government in Germany fell, as the Communists refused to collaborate with the Social Democrats.
7. In the wake of this, industrialists, bankers and the people of the royal family, who had the background, wanted to subordinate Hitler to their control.
8. They approached President von Hindenburg and appointed Hitler as Prime Minister.
9. The Nazi regime then put an end to parliamentary democracy in Germany.

1. Germany handed over Alsace and Lorraine to France.
2. The coal mines in the Saar Valley were to be ceded to France.
3. All German colonies became mandated territories under the League of Nations.
4. Germany was disarmed and was forced to give up practically all of its submarines. and battleships.
5. Germany was forbidden to have any airplanes, either military or naval.
6. Its army was to be limited to 100,000.
7. The union of Austria and Germany was forbidden.
8. Germany was to acknowledge and respect the Independence of Austria.
9. Germany and its allies were held responsible for the loss and damage suffered during the war.

1. Boris Yeltsin Joining the Communist Party in 1961, Later he became a fulltime worker in the party.
2. He emerged as a popular figure and began to occupy in key positions in the Party.
3. He chose to eliminate corruption in the Moscow party organisation.
4. In 1986 Yeltsin was elevated to the Politburo.
5. Soon he was made the mayor of Moscow.
6. Yeltsin antagonised Gorbachev when he began criticising the slow pace of reform at party meetings.
7. He advocated democratic governance and economic reforms.
8. He succeeded in winning a seat in the USSR Congress of People s Deputies.
9. The Soviet parliament elected him president of the Russian republic against Gorbachev's wishes.
10. He became the first popularly elected leader in 1991, after the collapse of Soviet Union.

1. As the United Nations voted to partition Palestine into a Jewish state And an Arab state in November 1947.
2. So conflict broke out almost immediately between Jews and Arabs in Palestine.
3. On the eve of the British forces withdrawal, Israel declared independence. 
4. From the start, when Israel was created, there was little involvement of the UN in making political decisions.
5. By 1966 the U.S. providing began to Israel with advanced planes and missiles.
6. In April 1967 there were artillery exchanges between Israel and Syria.
7. The U.S. Sixth Fleet remained off the Syrian coast.
8. Egypt closed the Straits of Taran to Israeli shipping. In early June Israel attacked Egypt.

(i) Portugal led the way first in exploration, discovering the Canaries, Madeira and the Azores.
(ii) Sailors sent out by Prince Henry, the Navigator reached Guinea Coast of Africa.
(iii) Later Bartholomew Diaz rounded the Cape of Good Hope. In 1492 Columbus came to a land of America.
(iv) Vasco da Gama reached the island of Mozambique.
(v) Later, he reached part of India and opened avenues for direct trade.
(vi) Cabral sailed to India, following the route of Vasco da Gama, and reached Kozhikode.
(vii) These new maritime discoveries, led t< ; >the direct trade of Europeans to the countries of the East.

(i) Major parts of Spain like Aragon and Castile were under the control of the Moors.
(ii) Together King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella worked hard to drive away the Moors and unite Spain.
(iii) The king and queen took power in their hands and controlled the nobles by eliminating them from the royal councils.
(iv) This made Spain to emerge as a nation-state. England emerged as nation-states.
(v) There was conflict between two royal houses in England namely the House of york and House of Lancaster for the throne.
(vi) In this civil war, Henry Tudor emerged victorious and he started a new line of monarchy in England.
(vii) He entered into matrimonial alliance with Elizabeth of York family. This made England to emerge as a nation-state. France emerged as nation-states.
(viii) Burgundy and western parts of France was for long in English possession.
(ix) At the end of the hundred years war, Louis XI Burgundy returned, after he had driven the English out of the country.
(x) Finally brought under control and Burgundy became part of France in about 1483. This made France to emerge as a nation-state.

1. The Napoleonic rule, for the first time, provided Italy with a sense of unity through uniform administration.
2. The several secret societies such as the like the Corporanari, who were insisting on free and patriotic ideas, became more spread.
3. Mazzini, Cavour, and Garibaldi were the three central figures of the unification of ltaly.
4. Parma, Modena and Tuscany were merged with the Kingdom of Piedmont- Sardinia through plebiscites.
5. Plebiscites held in Sicily, Naples and Papal States led to their merger with Piedmont-Sardinia.
6. At the end of the war with Austria, Italy acquired Lombardy under the Zurich pact.
7. During the Austro-Prussian War in 1866, Italy had allied itself with Prussia and was rewarded with Venetia.
8. In 1871, Italy took advantage of the Franco-Prussian War to annex Rome as the French forces withdrew.

1. Metternich, the arbiter of Europe and enemy of nationality, was forced to leave Vienna in disguise.
2. Hungary and Bohemia both claimed national independence.
3. Milan expelled the Austrians.
4. Venice became an independent republic.
5. Charles Albert, King of Sardinia, declared war against Austria.
6. Absolutism seemed dead for a while. But it was not to be.
7. By the summer, the monarchs had begun their attacks on the revolutionaries.
8. They succeeded in crushing the democratic movements in important centres like Berlin, Vienna arid Milan.

1. Both countries were a colony of European countries.
2. In both countries, the communists gave voice against to the domination of colonialism.
3. During Worid War II, both countries were under Japanese occupation.
4. Both countries got Independence, after the second War.
Varying features:
1. The Philippines went to the u.s. control after being a colony of the Spanish state.
2. Indonesia is the colonial country of the Dutch state.
3. Nationalism developed among the Filipinos earlier than elsewhere.
4. The nationalist movement became the most belated in Indonesia.
5. The barbaric handling of the Cavite rebellion in the Philippines helped to develop nationalism.
6. The first event, which expressed nationalism in Indonesia, begins with the formation of the Boedi Oetomo.
7. The Philippines got independence' in 1946 with the support of the United States.
8. Indonesia got independence in 1949 due to pressure from the D.N Security Council.

1. In 1918 a Society for the Study of Marxism was formed in Peking University.
2. Among the students who attended was a young assistant librarian by the name of Mao Tse-tung.
3. In China, Kuomintang government became notorious for its corruption and gangsterism.
4. Mao knew that the Kuomintang grip on the towns was too strong. So concentrated his energies on organizing the peasantry.
5. He retreated into the wild mountains on the border between the provinces of Kiangsi and Hunan.
6. Later, Mao wanted to move out of Human for safer territory.
7. Therefore, the Communist anny set out on what came to be known as the Long March in 1934.
8. As a result of the Long Maffih, Mao became the ruler of the people in china.

1) Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi was born in the coastal town of Porbandar in 1869. When he returned to India in 1915 he had a record of fighting against inequalities imposed by the racist government of South Africa.
2) Gandhi certainly wanted to be of help to forces of nationalism in India. He was in touch with leaders India as he had come into contact, with Congress leaders while mobilizing support for the South African Indian cause earlier. Impressed by activities and ideas of Gopala Krishna Gokhale, he acknowledged him as his political Guru.
3) On his return to India, following Gokhale's advice, Gandhi, who was away from India for over two decades, spent a year travelling all over the country acquainting himself with the situation.
4) He established his Sabarmati Ashram at Ahmedabad but did not take active part in political movements including the Home Rule movement.
5) Champaran Movement (1917): It was not difficult for Gandhi to convince the committee of the difficulties of the poor peasants. The report was accepted and implemented resulting in the release of the indigo cultivators of the bondage of European planters who gradually had to withdraw from Champaran itself.
6) Gandhi's call for protest on the issues of Khilafat, and Rowlatt Act and as a response the British government's repressive measures leading to the Jallianwalla Bagh massacre prompted the Congress to launch non-cooperation movement.
7) The Congress boycotted the Sirmon Commission and the first Round Table Conference and intensified the struggle by launching civil disobedience movement, in the wake of fruitless outcome of Second Round Table Conference.
8) Gandhi's Dandi March and Rajaji's Salt March to Vedaranyam in Tamilnadu succeeded in mobilizing the masses 'for the nationalist cause.

1) Non-cooperation government is disobey the rule but Civil Disobedient Movement is don't care about the rule.
2) The Khilafat Conference, at the instance of Gandhi, decided to launch the non-cooperation movement from 31 August 1920. Earlier an all party meet at Allahabad had decided on a programme of boycott of government educational institutions and their law courts.
3) The Congress met in a special session at Calcutta in September 1920 and resolved to accept Gandhi's proposal on non-cooperation with the colonial state till such time as Khilafat and Punjab grievances were redressed and self-government established.
4)  Non-cooperation movement included boycott of schools, colleges, courts, government offices, legislatures, foreign goods, return of government conferred titles and awards. Alternatively, national schools, panchayats were to be set up and swadeshi goods manufactured and used. The struggle at a later stage was to include no tax campaign and mass civil disobedience, etc.
5) The Viceroy admitted in a letter to the Secretary of State that the movement had seriously affected lower classes in certain areas of UP, Bengal, Assam, Bihar and Orissa the peasants have been affected.
6) Impressed by the intensity of the movement, in a special session the Congress reiterated the intensification of the movement. In February 1922 Gandhi announced that he would lead a mass civil disobedience, including no tax campaigns, at Bardoli, if the government did not ensure press freedom and release the prisoners within seven days.

1) Tilak Home RuleLeague was set up at the Bombay Provincial conference held at Belgaum in April 1916. It League was to work in Maharashtra (including Bombay city), Karnataka, the Central Provinces and Berar.
2) Tilak's League was organised into six branches and Annie Besant's League was given the rest of India.
3) Tilak popularised the demand for Home Rule through his lectures.
4) The popularity of his League was confined to Maharashtra and Karnataka but claimed a membership of 14,000 in April 1917 and 32,000 by early 1918.
5) On 23 July 1916 on his 60th birthday Tilak was arrested for propagating the idea of Home Rule.
Besant's Home Rule League
1) Finding no signs from the Congress, Besant herself inaugurated the Home Rule League at Madras in September 1916.
2) Its branches were established at Kanpur, Allahabad, Benaras, Mathura, Calicut and Ahmednagar.
3) She made an extensive tour and spread the idea of Home Rule. She declared that "the price of India's loyalty is India's Freedom". 
4) Moderate congressmen who were dissatisfied with the inactivity of the Congress joined the Home Rule League.
5) The popularity of the Le-ague can be gauged from the fact that Jawaharlal Nehru, Muhammad Ali Jinnah, B. Chakravarti and Jitendralal Banerji, Satyamurti and Khaliquzzaman were taking up the membership of the League.
6) As Besant's Home Rule Movement became very popular in Madras, the Government of Madras decided to suppress it. Students were barred from attending its meetings. 

(i) Provinces should be freed as much as possible from Central control in administration and finance.
(ii) Four-fifths of the Central and Provincial Legislative Councils should be elected, and one-fifth nominated.
(iii) Four-fifths of the provincial and central legislatures were to be elected on as broad a franchise as possible.
(iv) Half the executive council members, including those of the central executive council were to be Indians elected by the councils themselves.
(v) The Congress also agreed to separate electorates for Muslims in provincial council elections and for preferences in their favour (beyond the proportions indicated by population) in all provinces except the Punjab and Bengal, where some ground was given to the Hindu and Sikh minorities. This pact paved the way for Hindu-Muslim cooperation in the Khilafat Movement and Gandhi's Non-Cooperation Movement
(vi) The Governments, Central and Provincial, should be bound to act in accordance with resolutions passed by their Legislative Councils unless they were vetoed by the Governor- General or Governors-in-Council and, in that event, if the resolution was passed again after an interval of not less than one year, it should be put into effect;
(vii) The relations of the Secretary of State with the Government of India should be similar to those of the Colonial Secretary with the Governments of the Dominions, and India should have an equal status with that of the Dominions in any body concerned with imperial affairs. The Lucknow Pact.

1) Swadeshi movement in Tamil Nadu, notably in Tirunelveli district, generated a lot of attention and support.
2) While the Swadeshi movement in Tamil Nadu had an all India flavour, with collective anger against the British rule remaining the common thread, it was also underpinned by Tamil - pride and consciousness.
3) There was a deep divide in the Tamilnadu congress between the moderates and the extremists.
Development of Vernacular Oratory.
1) Initially, the movement was more of a reaction to the partition of Bengal and regular meetings were held to protest the partition.
2) The speakers, in such meetings, spoke mostly in the vernacular language to an audience that included students, lawyers, and labourers at that time.
3) The shift from English oratory to vernacular oratory was a significant development of this time; which had a huge impact on the mass politics in Tamil Nadu
4) Swadeshi meetings at the Marina beach in Madras were a regular sight. The Moore Market complex in Madras was another venue utilised for such gatherings. During the period (1905-1907) there are police reports calling students dangerous and their activities as seditious.
V.O.C and Swadeshi Steam Navigation Company (SSNC)
1) The Swadeshi movement in Tamil Nadu came to national attention in 1906 when V.O.Chidambaram mooted the idea of launching a swadeshi shipping venture in opposition to the monopoly of the British in navigation through the coast.
2) In 1906, V.O.C registered a joint stock company called The Swadeshi Steam Navigation Company (SSNC) with a capital of Rs 10 Lakh, divided into 40,000 shares of Rs.25 each. Shares were open only to Indians, Ceylonese and other Asian nationals. V.O.C purchased two steamships, S.S. Gallia and S.S. Lawoe.
The Coral Mill Strike
1) After attending the session of the Indian National Congress at Surat, V.O.C on his return decided to work on building a political organisation.
2) While looking for an able orator, he came across Subramania Siva, a swadeshi preacher. From February to March 1907, both the leaders addressed meetings almost on a daily basis at the beach in Tuticorin, educating the people about swadeshi and the boycott campaign.
3) The meetings were attended by thousands of people. These public gatherings were closely monitored by the administration.
4) In 1908, the abject working and living conditions of the Coral Mill workers attracted the attention of V.O.C and Siva
5) In the next few days, both the leaders addressed the mill workers. In March 1908, the workers of the Coral Cotton Mills, inspired by the address went on strike. It was one of the earliest organised labour agitations in India
Subramania Bharati: Poet and Nationalist
1) The growth of newspapers, both in English and Tamil language, aided the swadeshi movement in Tamil Nadu. G. Subramaniam was one of the first among the leaders to use newspapers to spread the nationalist message across a larger audience.
2) Subramaniam, along with five others, founded The Hindu (in English) and Swadesamitran (which was the first ever Tamil daily).
3) Subramania Bharati became the sub-editor of Swadesamitran around the time (1904) when Indian nationalism was looking for a fresh direction. Bharati was also editing Chakravartini, a Tamil monthly devoted to the cause of Indian women.

1) As pointed out earlier, thanks to the campaigns conducted by Bal Gangadhar Tilak Bipin Chandra Pal and Lala Lajpat Rai, often referred to as the Lal-Bal-Pal triumvirate, Maharashtra, Bengal, Punjab, emerged as the epicentres of militant nationalism during the Swadeshi phase.
2) Aurobindo Ghose was another influential figure in the militant leadership. The nationalism of this form was more assertive compared to the early Indian nationalism.
3) Both the groups, moderate and militant, were well aware of the evils or the wrong doings of the British rule.
4) The moderates, however, worked under the belief that the British rule in India could be reformed by convincing the rulers through representation and petitioning.
5) The militant nationalist, on the other hand, was of the opinion that the colonial rulers would never be amenable to reason, as they would not like to give up the advantages of an empire.
6) Militant nationalism also changed the nature of political pressure from the earlier force of public opinion of educated Indians to the protesting masses.
7) Despite these changes, the militant nationalism phase retained a continuity from the moderate phase.
8) This continuity was evident in the inability to transcend the peaceful method of struggle and for the most parts militant nationalism remained tied to the idea of non-violence. However, they appealed to the patriotic sentiments of the people using the religious symbols.
Swaraj or Political Independence
1) One of the common goals of the militant leaders was to achieve Swaraj or Self Rule. However, the leaders differed on the meaning of Swaraj.
2) For Tilak, Swaraj was restricted to the Indian control over the administration or rule by the natives, but not total severance of relation with Britain.
3) In Bipin Chandra Pal's view, Swaraj was the attainment of complete freedom from any foreign rule.

1) Indian national movement dates its birth from the 1857 uprising. The outrages committed by the British army after putting down the revolt remained "un-avenged".
2) Even the court-martial law and formalities were not observed Officers who sat on the court martial swore that they would hang their prisoners, guilty or innocent and, if any dared to raise his voice against such indiscriminate vengeance, he was silenced by his angry colleagues.
3) Persons condemned to death after the mockery of a trial were often tortured by soldiers before their execution, while the officers looked on approvingly.
4) It is worth recalling what Elphinstone, Governor of Bombay Presidency, wrote to Sir John Lawrence, future Viceroy of India (1864) about the British siege of Delhi during June- September, 1857'. A wholesale vengeance is being taken without distinction of friend or foe. As regards the looting, we have indeed surpassed Nadirshah.'
Racial Discrimination
1) The English followed a policy of racial discrimination.
2) The systematic exclusion of the Indians from higher official positions came to be looked upon as an anti-Indian policy measure and the resultant discontent of the Indian upper classes led the Indians to revolt against the British rule.
3) When civil service examinations were introduced the age limit was fixed at twenty one. When Indians were making it, with a view to debarring the Indians from entering the civil services, the age limit was reduced to nineteen.
4) Similarly, despite requests from Indian educated middle class to hold the civil service examinations simultaneously in India, the Imperial government refused to concede the request.

1) The colonial government aided the spread of modem education in India for a different reason than educating and empowering the Indians.
2) To administer a large colony like India, the British needed a large number of personnel to work for them. It was impossible for the British to import the educated lot, needed in such large numbers, from Britain.
3) With this aim, the English Education Act was passed by the Council of India in 1835. T.B. Macaulay drafted this system of education introduced in India
4) Consequently, the colonial administration started schools, colleges and universities, imparting English and modem education, in India
5) Universities were established in Bombay, Madras and Calcutta in 1857.
6) The colonial government expected this section of educated Indians to be loyal to the British and act as the pillars of the British Raj.
7) The British created an educated Indian middle class for their own ends but sneered at it as the Babu class.
8) That every class, however, became the progressive intelligentsia of India and played a leading role in mobilising the people for the liberation of the country.
9) The economic and administrative transformation on the one side and the growth of Western education on the other gave the space for the growth of new social classes.
10)  From within these social classes, a modem Indian intelligentsia emerged
11) The "neo-social classes" created by the British Raj, which included the Indian trading and business communities, landlords, money lenders, English-educated Indians employed in imperial subordinate services, lawyers and doctors, initially adopted a positive approach towards the colonial administration.
12)  However, soon they realised that their interests would be better served only in independent India
13)  People of the said social classes began to play a prominent role in promoting patriotism amongst the people.
14) The consciousness of these classes found articulation in a number of associations prior to the founding of the Indian National Congress at the national level.

1) Education and health constitute the social sectors, and the status of education and health indicators are yardsticks for assessing the level of social development in a country.
2) Sadly, India is far behind many less developed countries, especially on health indicators like maternal mortality and infant mortality, and education indicators with respect to school education.
3) These poor outcomes are a reflection of the low share of plan outlay set aside for the social sectors.
4) This hovered between 16 and 18% between 956 and 1990 (Second to the Seventh Plans). The outlay has increased only from the Eighth Pian onwards due to a greater emphasis on social justice and inclusive growth.
5) But it was still less than 30% of the total outlay.
6) It crossed the one-third mark only .in the Twelfth Plan. Expenditure on education as a percentage of total GDP has been less than 5% in India, and compares unfavourably with China and other Asian countries.
7) Literacy levels have increased in India from 18.3% in 1951 to 74% in 2011. Female literacy still lags behind the male literacy rate at 65% as compared to 82% among men.
8) There has been a great increase in the number of schools from the primary to senior high school level and in the growth of institutions of higher learning.
9) In 2014-15 there were 12.72 lakh primary and upper primary schools, 2.45 lakh secondary .and higher secondary schools, 38, 498 colleges and 43 Central Universities, 316 State Universities, 122 Deemed Universities and 181 State Private Universities in the country.
10)  Enrolment in primary schools stood at 96%, and 40% in the secondary and higher secondary schools. However, the drop-out rate is 51% in primary schools, and as high as 62% in secondary and high schools.
11) Children dropping out of school mostly belonged to the poorer families in rural and urban areas and socially backward castes (SCs and STs).
12) The drop-out rate is particularly high among girl children. This is because they are often withdrawn from school either because the family is not able to afford to keep all the children in school and more often because they have to assist in household chores and looking after younger children in the family.
13) There are great inter-regional variations in the drop-out and enrolment rates, so that backward states and regions have the poorest record on school education.
14) A further problem is that government schools at all levels are perceived to be functioning very badly.
15) Teachers are often absent and seem to show little interest in providing good education to the students.
16) This has resulted in most parents, including low income parents, opting to take their children out of government schools (which are free) and putting them in private schools, paying high fees, because these are supposed to give better education.
17) Since private schools are rarely set up in backward regions with high levels of poverty, the regional disparities in school education have become more accentuated.

Under the Constitution of India, agriculture was a 'state subject', that is, each state had to pass laws relating to land reforms individually.
(a) Zamindari Abolition:
Zamindar - the class of landowners designated during British rule as the intermediaries who collected rent from peasants cultivating their land and paid that land revenue to the government under a Permanent Settlement.
1) Abolition of Zamindari was part of the manifesto of the Indian National Congress Party even before Independence.
2) Most provinces in India had enacted laws abolishing the zamindari system.
3) Land was taken away from the zamindars were distributed among the tenants.
4) The provincial legislatures also recommended the amount of compensation to be paid to the zamindars.
5) zamindars in various parts of the country challenged the zamindari abolition laws in court.
6) The government then passed two amendments to the Constitution, which removed the 'right to property' from the fundamental rights guaranteed under the Constitution and preempted the right of zamindars, to question the expropriation of their land or the value of the compensation.
7) Finally, zamindari abolition was completed by 1956, and was possibly the most successful of the land reforms.
8) In sum, however, the reform only achieved a very small part of the original objective. Thus, while the institution of zamindari was dismantled, many landowners continued in possession of vast tracts of land,
(b) Tenancy Reform:
Tenancy refers to an arrangement under which land was taken on lease from landowners by cultivators under specific terms.
1) Nearly half of the total cultivated land in India was under tenancy.
2) Not all tenants were landless peasants. Many small landowners, Some richer landowners also took additional land for cultivation on lease.
3) The rents received by the landowners generally amounted to about 50% or more of the produce from the land, which was very high.
4) Tenants could also be evicted at short notice, and tenants therefore always lived under some uncertainty,
Tenancy reform legislation was aimed at achieving three ends:
(i) to regulate the rent;
(ii) to secure the rights of the tenant;
(iii) to confer ownership rights on the tenants by expropriating the land of the land owners.
1) Legislation was passed in the states regulating the rent at one-fourth to one third of the produce. But this could never be implemented successfully.
2) The two Communist states, Kerala and West Bengal, were able to push through land reforms with greater success.
3)  In West Bengal, the programme to confer tenancy rights was called Operation Barga. This was quite successful, but the Communist government was criticized severely for giving official sanction to tenancy.
(c) Land Ceiling.
1) Land ceiling refers to the maximum amount of land that could be legally owned by individuals. Laws were passed after the 1950s to enforce it. In Tamilnadu it was implemented first in 1961.
2) Until 1972, there was a ceiling on the extent of land that a 'landholder' could own. After 1972, the unit was changed to a 'family'.
3) This meant that the landowners could claim that each member of the family owned a part of the land which would be much less than the prescribed limit under the ceiling.
4) Ultimately, only about 65 lakh hectares of land was taken over as surplus land. This was distributed to about 55 lakh tenants-an average of a little over 1 hectare per tenant.
5) Clearly, with their political power the dominant castes who were the big landowners managed to dilute and vitiate the entire legislation.
6) Efforts like Bhoodan started by Vinoba Bhave to persuade large landowners to surrender their surplus land voluntarily attracted much public attention.
7) But the end results were disappointing, since the land thus surrendered was usually unproductive land.
(d) Overall Appraisal:
1) Land reform legislation has overall not been a great success.
2) In economic terms, the dream of an agricultural sector prospering under peasant cultivators with secure, ownership rights has remained just that - a dream.
3) When agriculture has grown due to technological progress, a more efficient land market is 1 seen to be operating which is more conducive for long term growth.
4) In terms of social justice, the abolition of the semi-feudal system of zamindari has been effective.
5) The land reform measures have also made the peasants more politically aware of their rights and empowered them.

1) The founding principles of independent India's foreign policy were, in fact, formulated at least three decades before independence. It evolved in the course of the freedom struggle and was rooted in its conviction against any form of colonialism. Jawaharlal Nehru was its prime architect.
2) India's foreign policy was based on certain basic principles. They are anti-colonialism, anti-imperialism, anti-apartheid or anti-racism, non-alignment with the super powers, Afro- Asian Unity, non-aggression, non-interference in other's internal affairs, mutual respect for each other's sovereignty and territorial integrity, and the promotion of world peace and security. The commitment to peace between nations was not placed in a vacuum; it was placed with an equally emphatic commitment to justice.
3) The context in which India's foreign policy was formulated was further complicated by the two contesting power blocs that dominated the world in the post-war scenario: the US and the USSR. Independent India responded to this with non-alignment as its foreign policy .doctrine. Before we go into the details of non-alignment, it will be useful to look at India's relationship with China since independence. China was liberated by its people from Japanese colonial expansionism in 1949, just two years after India's Independence. Nehru laid a lot of importance on friendship with China, with whom India shared a long border
4) India was the first to recognize the new People's Republic of China on January 1, 1950. The shared experience of suffering at the hands of colonial powers and its consequences - poverty and underdevelopment - in Nehru's perception was force enough to get the two nations to join hands to give Asia its due place in the world. Nehru pressed for representation for Communist China in the UN Security Council.
5) Tibet, in 1950, India was unhappy that it had not been taken into confidence. In 1954, India and China signed a treaty in which India recognized China's rights over Tibet and the two countries placed their relationship within a set of principles, widely known since then as the principles of Panch Sheel.
6) Meanwhile, Nehru took special efforts to project China and Chou En-lai at the Bandung Conference, held in April 1955. In 1959, the Dalai Lama, fled Tibet along with thousands of refugees after a revolt by the Buddhists was crushed by the Chinese government. The Dalai Lama was given asylum in India and it made the Chinese unhappy. Soon after, in October 1959, the Chinese opened fire on an Indian patrol near the Kongka pass in Ladakh, killing five Indian policemen and capturing a dozen others. Though talks were held at various levels including with Chou En-lai, not much headway was made.
7) Then came the 1962 war with China. On 8 September 1962, Chinese forces attacked the Thagla ridge and dislodged Indian troops. All the goodwill and attempts to forge an Asian bloc in the world came to a stop. India took a long time to recover from the blow to its self-respect, and perhaps it was only the victory over Pakistan in the Bangladesh war, in which China and the US were also supporting Pakistan, that restored the sen.se of selfworth.
8) India's contribution to the world, however, was not restricted to its relationship with China and the Panch Sheel. It was most pronounced and lasting in the form of non-alignment and its concretisation at the Bandung Conference.
9) In March 1947, Nehru organised the Asian Relations Conference, attended by more than twenty countries. The theme of the conference was Asian independence and assertion on the world stage. Another such conference was held in December 1948 in specific response to the Dutch attempt to re-colonize Indonesia. The de-colonization initiative was carried forward further at the Asian leaders' conference in Colombo in 1954, culminating in the Afro- Asian Conference in Bandung, Indonesia, in 1955. The Bandung Conference set the stage for the meeting of nations at Belgrade and the birth of the Non-Aligned Movement.
10) The architect of independent India's foreign policy, indeed, was Jawaharlal Nehru and the high point of it was reached in 1961 then he stood with Nasser of Egypt and Tito of Yugoslavia to call for nuclear disarmament and peace. The importance of non-alignment and its essence in such a world is best explained from what Nehru had to say about it.

1) An important aspect of the making of independent India was the reorganisation of states on linguistic basis. The colonial rulers had rendered the sub-continent into administrative units, dividing the land by way of Presidencies or Provinces without taking into account the language and its impact on culture on a region.
2) Independence and the idea of a constitutional democracy meant that the people were sovereign and that India was a multi-cultural nation where federal principles were to be adopted in a holistic sense and not just as an administrative strategy,
3) The linguistic reorganization of states was raised and argued out in Constituent Assembly • between 1947 and 1949. The assembly however decided to hold it in abeyance for a while on the grounds that the task was huge and could create problems in the aftermath of the partition and the accompanying violence.
4) After the Constitution came into force it began to be implemented in stages, beginning with the formation of a composite Andhra Pradesh in 1956. It culminated in the trifurcation of Punjab to constitute a Punjabi-speaking state of Punjab and carving out Haryana and Himachal Pradesh from the existing state of Punjab in 1966.
5) The idea of linguistic reorganisation of states was integral to the national movement, at least since 1920. The Indian National Congress, at its Nagpur session (1920), recorded that the national identity will have to be necessarily achieved through linguistic identity; and resolved to set up the Provincial Congress Committees on a linguistic basis.
6) It took concrete expression in the Nehru Committee Report of 1928. Section 86 of the Nehru Report read: "The redistribution of provinces should take place on a linguistic basis on the demand of the majority of the population of the area concerned, subject to financial and administrative considerations."
7) This idea was expressed, in categorical terms, in the manifesto of the Indian National Congress for the elections to the Central and Provincial Legislative Assemblies in 1945, The manifesto made a clear reference to the reorganisation of the provinces: " ... it (the Congress) has also stood for the freedom of each group and territorial area within the nation to develop its own life and culture within the larger framework, and it has stated that for this purpose such territorial areas or provinces should be constituted as far as possible, on a linguistic and cultural basis ... "
8) On August 31, 1946, only a month after the elections to the Constituent Assembly, Pattabhi Sitaramayya raised the demand for an Andhra Province: "The whole problem" he wrote, "must be taken up as the first and foremost problem to be solved by the Constituent Assembly".
9) He also presided over a conference, on December 8, 1946, that passed a resolution demanding that the Constituent Assembly accept the principle for linguistic reorganisation of States. The Government of India in a communique stated that Andhra could be mentioned as a separate unit in the new Constitution as was done in case of the Sind and Orissa under the Government of India act, 1935.
10) The Drafting Committee of the Constituent Assembly, however, found such a mention of ~dhra was not possible until the geographical schedule of the province was outlined. Hence, on June 17, 1948, Chairman Rajendra Prasad set up a 3-member commission, called The Linguistic Provinces Commission with a specific brief to examine and report on the formation of new provinces of Andhra, Kerala, Karnataka and Maharashtra. Its report, submitted on December 10, 1948, listed out reasons against the idea of linguistic reorganisation in the given context. It dealt with each of the four proposed States - Andhra, Karnataka, Kerala and Maharashtra - and concluded against such an idea.
11) However, the demand for linguistic reorganisation of states did not stop. The issue gained centre-stage with Pattabhi Sitaramayya's election as the Congress President at the Jaipur session. A resolution there led to the constitution of a committee with Sardar Vallabhai Patel, Pattabhi Sitaramayya and Jawaharlal Nehru (also called the JVP committee).
12) The JVP committee submitted its report on April 1, 1949. It too held that the demand for linguistic states, in the given context, as "narrow provincialism" and that it could become a "menace" to the development of the country. The JVP committee also held out that "while language is a binding force, it is also a separating one". However, it stressed that it was possible that "when conditions are more static and the state of peoples' minds calmer, the adjustment of these boundaries or the creation of new provinces can be undertaken with relative ease and with advantage to all concerned. "
13)  The committee said in conclusion that it was not the right time to embark upon the idea of linguistic reorganisation of States. In other words, the consensus was that the linguistic reorganisation of states be postponed. There was provision for re-working the boundaries between states and also for the formation of new states from parts of existing states.
14)  The makers of the Constitution did not qualify the reorganisation of the States as only on linguistic basis but left it open as long as there was agreement on such reorganisation.
15) The idea of linguistic states revived soon after the first general elections were over. Potti Sriramulu's fast demanding a separate. state of Andhra, beginning October 19, 1952 and his death thereafter on December 15, 1952.
16) This led to the constitution of the States Reorganisation Commission, with Fazli Ali as Chairperson, and K.M. Panikkar and H.N. Husrau as members. The Commission submitted its report in October 1955. The Commission recommended the following States to constitute the Indian Union: Madras, Kerala, Karnataka, Hyderabad, Andhra, Bombay, Vidharbha, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Assam, Orissa and Jammu & Kashmir. In other words, the Commission's recommendations were a compromise between administrative convenience and linguistic concerns.

1) The economic impact of the war was manifest in rising prices, shortage of food- grains and closure of war time industries causing retrenchment and employment.
2) This merged with the anti-British sentiments evident in the mass scale of the protests revolving around the INA trials.
3) B.C. Dutt, a rating in the HMIS Talwar was arrested for scribbling 'Quit India' on the panel of the ship.
4) This provoked a strike by the 1,100 ratings on the ship. The ratings resented the racist behaviour of the English commanders, the poor quality of the food and abuses that were the norm.
5) Dutt's arrest served as the trigger for the revolt on February 18, 1946.
6) The day after, the revolt was joined by the ratings in the Fort Barracks and the Castle and a large number of them went into the Bombay cities in commandeered trucks waving Congress flags and shouting anti-British slogans.
7) Soon, the workers in the textile mills, The trade unions in Bombay and Calcutta called for strike and the two cities turned into war zones. Shopkeepers downed shutters, Trains were stopped.
8) As the news of the Bombay Revolt reaches Karachi, ratings in the HMIS Hindustan and other naval establishments in Karachi went on a lightning strike on February 19.
9) The strike wave spread to almost all the naval establishments across India and at least 20,000 ratings from 78 ships and 20 shore .establishments ended up revolting in the days after February 18, 1946.
10)  There were strikes, expressing support to the ratings in the Royal Indian Air Force in Bombay and Calcutta units & the sepoys in the army cantonment station at Jabalpur too went on strike.
11) The ratings, in many places, hoisted the Congress, the Communist, and the Muslim League flags together on the ship masts during the revolt.
12) The colonial government's response was brutal repression.
13) The strikes in Bombay and Calcutta and Madras were strong expressions against British rule in India, these did not last for long and the ratings were forced to surrender soon.
14) Sardar Vallabhai Patel, then in Bombay, took the initiative to bring the revolt to an end.
15) The RIN mutiny, however, was indeed a glorious chapter in the Indian National Movement and perhaps the last act of rebellion in the long story of such acts of valour in the cause of independence.

In April 1944, when the Congress leaders were in jail, C.Rajagopalachari put out a proposal to resolve the issue. It contained the following:
1)  A post-war commission to be formed to demarcate the contiguous districts where the Muslims were in absolute majority and a plebiscite of the adult population there to ascertain whether they would prefer Pakistan;
2) In case of a partition there would be a mutual agreement to run certain essential services, like defence or communication;
3) The border districts could choose to join either of the two sovereign states;
4) The implementation of the scheme would wait till after full transfer of power. After his release from prison, Gandhi, in July 1944, proposed talks with Jinnah based on what came to be the 'Rajaji formula'. The talks did not go anywhere.
Wavell Plan:
1) In June 1945 Lord Wavell moved to negotiate and called for the Simla conference.
2) The rest of the Congress leaders, including Jawaharlal Nehru, Sardar Patel and the Congress president, Maulana Abul Kalam Azad were released from jail for this.
3) Wavell convinced Churchill for a Congress-Muslim League coalition government as a way to deal with the post-war political crisis.
4) The Viceroy's proposal before the leaders of all political formations and most prominently the Congress and the Muslim League was setting up of an Executive Council, exclusively with Indians along with himself and the commander-in-chief; equal number of representatives in the council for the caste Hindus and the Muslims and separate representation for the Scheduled Castes; and start of discussions for a new constitution.
5) The proposal displeased everyone. The Simla Conference held between June 25 and July 14-1945 ended without resolution.
6) The talks broke down on the right of the Indian National Congress and the Muslim League to nominate members to the Viceroy's Council.
7) The Muslim League insisted on its exclusive right to nominate Muslim members to the Council.
8) Its demand was that the Congress nominees shall only be caste Hindus and that the Indian National Congress should not nominate a Muslim or a member from the Scheduled Caste.
9) This was seen as a means to further the divide on communal lines and deny the Congress the status of representing the Indian people.
10) Lord Wavell found a council without Muslim League representation as unworkable and thus abandoned the Simla talks.
11) The years between the Lahore resolution of 1940 and the Simla Conference in 1945 marked the consolidation of a Muslim national identity and the emergence of Jinnah as its sole spokesperson.
12) It was at a convention of Muslim League Legislators in Delhi in April 1946, that Pakistan was defined as a 'sovereign independent state.
13) For the first time the League also declared its composition in geographical terms as 'the region consisting of the Muslim majority provinces of Bengal and Assam in the Northeast and the Punjab, North-West Frontier Province, Sind and Baluchistan in the Northwest.
14) The Congress president Maulana Abul Kalam Azad rejected this idea and held that the Congress stood for a united India with complete independence.
15) All these were developments after the Simla conference of June-July 1945 and after Churchill was voted out and replaced by a Labour Party government headed by Clement Attlee.
16) Times had changed in a substantial sense. British Prime Minister, Attlee had declared the certainty of independence to India with only the terms left to be decided.

Hindu nationalism:
1) In the Punjab communalism as a powerful movement had set in completely. In 1924 Lala Lajpat Rai openly advocated the partition of the Punjab into Hindu and Muslim Provinces.
2) The Hindu Mahasabha, represented the forces of Hindu revivalism in the political domain, raised the slogan of' Akhand Hindustan' against the Muslim League's demand of separate electorates for Muslims.
3)  Ever since its inception, the Mahasabha's role in the freedom struggle has been rather controversial. While not supportive of British rule, the Mahasabha did not offer its full support to the nationalist movement either.
4) Since the Indian National Congress had to mobilize the support of all classes and communities against foreign domination, the leaders of different communities could not press for principle of secularism firmly for the fear of losing the support of religious minded groups.
5) The Congress under the leadership of Gandhi held a number of unity conferences during this period, but to no avail.
Muslim nationalism
1) One great outcome of the efforts at unity, however, was an offer by the Conference of Muslims, which met at Delhi on March 20, 1927 to give up separate electorates if four proposals were accepted.
1. the separation of Sind from Bombay
2. Reforms for the Frontier and Baluchistan
3. Representation by population in the Punjab and Bengal and
4. Thirty-three per cent seats for the Muslims in the Central Legislature.
Indian nationalism
1) The nationalism of the Indian National Congress was personified by Mahatma Gandhi, who rejected the narrow nationalism exemplified by the Arya Samaj and the Aligargh movement and strove to evolve a political identity that transcended the different religions.
2) Notwithstanding the state-supported communalism of different hues, the Indian National Congress remained a dominant political force in India.
3) In the 1937 elections, Congress won in seven of the eleven provinces and fonned the largest party in three others. The Muslim League's performance was dismal. It succeeded in winning only 4.8 per cent of the Muslim votes.
4) The Congress had emerged as a mass secular party. Yet the Government branded it a Hindu organisation and projected the Muslim League as the real representative of the Muslims and treated it on a par with the Congress.
5) Hindu nationalism, Muslim nationalism and secular nationalism competed with each other to politicise the people in their fight against British colonialism.

(a) Hindu Revivalism
1) Some of the early nationalists believed that nationalism could be built only on a Hindu foundation.
2) As pointed out by Sarvepalli Gopal, Hindu, revivalism found its voice in politics through the Arya Samaj, founded ill 1875, with its assertion of superior qualities of Hinduism.
3) The organization of cow protection leagues in large parts of North India in the late nineteenth century gave a fillip to Hindu communalism.
4) The effort of organizations such as Arya Samaj was strengthened by the Theosophical movement led by. Annie Besant from 1891. Besant identified herself with Hindu nationalists and expressed her ideas as follows: The Indian work is first of all the revival, strengthening and uplifting of ancient religions. This has brought with it a new self-respect, a pride in the past, a belief in the future and as an inevitable result, a great wave of patriotic life, the beginning of the rebuilding of a nation.
(b) Rise of Muslims Consciousness
1) Islam on the other hand, to quote Sarvepalli Gopal again, was securing its articulation through the Aligarh movement.
2) The British, by building the Aligarh college and backing Syed Ahmed Khan, had assisted the birth of a Muslim national party and Muslim political ideology.
3) The Wahabi movement had also created cleavage in Hindu-Muslim relations. The Wahabis wanted to take Islam to its pristine purity and to end the superstition which according to them had sapped its vitality. From the Wahabis to the Khilafatists, grassroots activism played a significant role in the politicization of Muslims.
(c) Divide and Rule Policy of British
1) The object of the British was to check the development of a composite Indian identity, and to forestall attempts at consolidation and unification of Indians.
2) The last decades of the nineteenth century was marked by a number of Hindu-Muslim riots. Even in south India, there was a major riot in Salem in July-August 1882.
(d) Cow Slaughter and Communal Riots
1) Gaurakshini Sabhas (cow protection leagues) were becoming more militant and there were reports of forcible interference with the sale or slaughter of cows.
2) The riots over cow-slaughter became frequent after 1893 and 15 major riots of this type broke out in the Punjab alone between 1883 and 1891.
3) Cow protectionists in the Punjab, the activities of Gaurakshini Sabhas in the Central Provinces, the campaigners for the recognition of Devanagiri as official language in courts and government offices in the United Provinces were also involved in the Congress organization.
(e) Failure of Congress and Government to combat Communalism
1) The Indian National Congress, despite its secular and nationalist claims was unable to prevent the involvement of its members in the activities of Hindu communal organisations.
2) This was a major factor in the Muslim distrust of the Congress. Congressmen's participation in shuddhi and sangathan campaigns of the Arya Samaj further estranged Hindus and Muslims.

1) The Indian National Congress, in contrast to the violent actions of revolutionaries, mobilised the masses for non-violent struggles. The Congress under the leadership of Gandhi gave priority to the problems of peasants.
2) In the context of great agrarian distress, deepened by world-wide economic depression, the Congress mobilised the peasantry. The Congress adopted a no-rent and no-tax campaign as a part of its civil disobedience programme. Under the pressure of Great Depression, socio-economic demands were sharply articulated in its Karachi Session of the Indian National Congress.
3) The freedom struggle was taking a new shape. Peasants organised themselves into Kisan Sabhas and industrial workers were organized by the trade unions, made their presence felt in a big way in the freedom struggle. The Indian National Congress had become a mass party during the 1930s. The Congress leadership, which was now taking a left turn under Nehru's leadership, began to talk about an egalitarian society based on social and economic justice.
4) The Karachi session held in March 1931, presided over by Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel, adopted a resolution on Fundamental Rights and Duties and provided an insight into what the economic policy of an independent India. In some ways, it was the manifesto of the Indian National Congress for independent India. These rights and the social and economic programmes were derived from a firm conviction that political freedom and economic freedom were inseparable.
5) Even a cursory look at the fundamental rights solution will tell you that all the basic rights that the British denied to the Indians found a prominent place in the Resolution. The colonial government curtailed civil liberties and freedom by passing draconian acts and ordinances. Gandhian ideals and Nehru's socialist vision also found a place in the list of rights that the Indian National Congress promised to ensure in free India.

1) The First World War gave a landmark break to the industrialisation of the country. For the first time, Britain's strategic position in the East was challenged by Japan. The traditional trade routes were vulnerable to attack. To meet the requirements, development of industries in India became necessary.
2) Hence, Britain loosened its grip and granted some concessions to the lndian capitalists. Comparative relaxation of control by the British government and the expansion of domestic market due to the War, facilitated the process of industrialisation. For the first time, an industrial commission was appointed in 1916. During the war-period, the cotton and jute industries showed much growth. Steel industry was yet another sector marked by substantial growth.
3) Other industries showing progress were paper, chemicals, cement, fertilisers, tanning, etc. The first Indian owned paper mill - Couper Paper Mill - was set up in 1882 in Lucknow. Following this, Itaghur Paper Mill and Bengal Paper Mill, both owned by Europeans, were established.
4) Cement manufacturing began in 1904 in Madras with the establishment of South Indian Industries Ltd. Tanning industry began in the late nineteenth century and a government leather factory was set up in 1860 in Kanpur. The first Indian-owned National Tannen was established in 1905 in Calcutta. The gold mining in Kolar also started in the late nineteenth century in the Kolar mining field, Mysore.
5) The inter-war period registered growth jn manufacturing industries. Interestingly the growth rate was far better than Britain and even better than the world average. After a short slug in 1923-24, the output of textile industry began to pick up. During the interwar period, the number of looms and spindles increased considerably.
6) In 1929-30, 44 percent of the total amount of cotton piece goods consumed in India came from outside, but by 1933-34, after the Great Depression, the proportion had fallen to 20.5 percent. Other two industries which registered impressive growth were sugar and cement. The Interwar years saw a growth in the shipping industry too. The Scindia Steam Navigation Company Limited (1919) was the pioneer. In 1939, they even took over the Bombay Steam Navigation CornpanyLtd., a British concern. Eight Indian concerns were operational in this sector. A new phase of production began with the Second World War, which led to the extension of manufacturing industries to machineries, aircrafts, locomotives, and so on.